1 00:00:05,740 --> 00:00:08,920 >>> GOOD MORNING AND WELCOME TO NASA HEADQUATERS IN WASHINGTON. 2 00:00:08,920 --> 00:00:20,900 MY NAME IS DWAYNE BROWN. 3 00:00:20,900 --> 00:00:29,800 THEY'LL PROVIDE THE THOUGHTS AND THEORIES OF THE POSSIBILITIES OF 4 00:00:29,800 --> 00:00:34,730 WHAT THIS COULD MEAN FOR LIFE BEYOND EARTH. 5 00:00:34,730 --> 00:00:42,040 WE'LL HAVE BRIEFINGS FROM PARTICIPANTS AND OPEN UP OUR 6 00:00:42,040 --> 00:00:45,750 PHONE LINES AND SOCIAL MEDIA. 7 00:00:45,750 --> 00:00:58,830 ANY UPDATES ARE AVAILABLE ONLINE AT WWW.NASA/MARS ALSO NASA.GOV 8 00:00:58,830 --> 00:01:05,159 JOURNEY TO MARS AND FOLLOW THE CONVERSATION AND THE 9 00:01:05,159 --> 00:01:09,380 CONVERSATION IS PHENOMENAL ALL OVER THE WORLD OF WHAT IS 10 00:01:09,380 --> 00:01:11,979 HAPPENING AND WHAT WILL BE TALKED ABOUT TODAY. 11 00:01:11,979 --> 00:01:14,740 SOCIAL MEDIA, YOUTUBE, TWITTER, FACEBOOK. 12 00:01:14,740 --> 00:01:18,600 AND SEND IN YOUR QUESTIONS TO†#ASKNASA. 13 00:01:18,600 --> 00:01:22,270 WE HAVE A LOT TO COVER. 14 00:01:22,270 --> 00:01:25,640 LET ME INTRODUCE YOU TO TODAY'S PARTICIPANTS. 15 00:01:25,640 --> 00:01:29,510 FIRST UP JOHN GRUNSFELD. 16 00:01:29,510 --> 00:01:34,960 FIVE TIME ASTRONAUT. 17 00:01:34,960 --> 00:01:47,070 >> JIM GREEN, DIRECTOR OF PLANETARY SCIENCE, NASA 18 00:01:47,070 --> 00:01:51,170 HEADQUATERS. 19 00:01:51,170 --> 00:01:55,609 MICHAEL MEYER, LEAD SCIENTIST FOR THE MARS EXPLORATION 20 00:01:55,609 --> 00:01:57,310 PROGRAM. 21 00:01:57,310 --> 00:01:58,310 NASA HEADQUATERS. 22 00:01:58,310 --> 00:02:03,350 AND LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, JOINING US VIA PHONE FROM 23 00:02:03,350 --> 00:02:08,060 FRANCE, INDIVIDUALS ATTENDING THE EUROPEAN PLANETARY SCIENCE 24 00:02:08,060 --> 00:02:16,360 CONFERENCE, ALFRED MCEWEN FOR 25 00:02:16,360 --> 00:02:24,150 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA TUCSAN 26 00:02:24,150 --> 00:02:31,030 AND LUJENDRA†OJHA AND JOINING US IS MARY BETH WILHELM. 27 00:02:31,030 --> 00:02:35,080 HOLD ON TO YOUR SEATS AND YOUR HATS AND I'LL TURN IT OVER TO 28 00:02:35,080 --> 00:02:38,490 JOHN. 29 00:02:38,490 --> 00:02:39,530 >> THANK YOU FOR COMING. 30 00:02:39,530 --> 00:02:42,280 THIS IS A VERY EXCITING DISCUSSION WE'RE GOING TO HAVE 31 00:02:42,280 --> 00:02:43,670 TODAY. 32 00:02:43,670 --> 00:02:49,810 SCIENCE AT NASA IS ALL ABOUT INNOVATING, EXPLORING, DISCOVERY 33 00:02:49,810 --> 00:02:53,890 AND INSPIRING AND WE HAVE SOME VERY INNOVATIVE INSTRUMENTS 34 00:02:53,890 --> 00:02:57,570 ORBITING MARS ON THE SURFACE OF MARS. 35 00:02:57,570 --> 00:02:59,400 STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY. 36 00:02:59,400 --> 00:03:03,070 WE'RE STARTING TO PUT TOGETHER A MUCH MORE INTERESTING PICTURE OF 37 00:03:03,070 --> 00:03:04,210 WHAT MARS IS LIKE. 38 00:03:04,210 --> 00:03:08,620 I DREW UP DURING THE ERA WHEN VIKINGS HAD LANDED ON MARS AND 39 00:03:08,620 --> 00:03:13,540 REVEALED A DESERT-LIKE PLANET APPARENTLY DEAD AND NOT AS 40 00:03:13,540 --> 00:03:16,190 INTERESTING AS WE SEE IT REALLY IS. 41 00:03:16,190 --> 00:03:19,340 OUR INSTRUMENTS TODAY ARE SHOWING US A MUCH MORE DYNAMIC 42 00:03:19,340 --> 00:03:22,730 AND COMPLEX PLANET AND ONE THAT IS EXCITING FOR A NUMBER OF 43 00:03:22,730 --> 00:03:26,290 REASONS WHICH I'LL DESCRIBE AND WHEN WE EXPLORE WE MAKE 44 00:03:26,290 --> 00:03:29,680 DISCOVERIES AND THAT'S REALLY THE HUMAN ELEMENT. 45 00:03:29,680 --> 00:03:31,930 DISCOVERY IS WHY WE DO SCIENCE. 46 00:03:31,930 --> 00:03:34,040 WE'RE TRYING TO ANSWER FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS ABOUT OUR 47 00:03:34,040 --> 00:03:38,430 UNIVERSITY, ABOUT OUR HOME PLANET, ABOUT OUR SOLAR SYSTEM, 48 00:03:38,430 --> 00:03:44,760 QUESTIONS LIKE WHERE DID WE COME FROM, WHERE ARE WE GOING? 49 00:03:44,760 --> 00:03:54,190 AND ARE WE ALONE. 50 00:03:54,190 --> 00:03:56,470 IN THIS CASE AND ONE OF THE REASONS I'M WEARING MY ASTRONAUT 51 00:03:56,470 --> 00:03:59,190 JACKET IS BECAUSE WE ARE GOING TO MARS. 52 00:03:59,190 --> 00:04:05,330 OUR JOURNEY TO MARS IS A SCIENCE LED EXPEDITION NOW BUT SOON 53 00:04:05,330 --> 00:04:08,500 WE'LL BE SENDING HUMANS TO THE RED PLANET TO EXPLORE AND 54 00:04:08,500 --> 00:04:12,900 SCIENCE WILL LEAD THE WAY AND TODAY'S ANNOUNCEMENT OF A REALLY 55 00:04:12,900 --> 00:04:17,220 FASCINATING RESULT ABOUT CURRENT WATER ON MARS IS ONE OF THE 56 00:04:17,220 --> 00:04:21,090 REASONS WHY I FEEL IT'S EVEN MORE IMPERATIVE THAT WE SEND 57 00:04:21,090 --> 00:04:24,650 ASTROBIOLOGISTS AND PLANETARY SCIENTISTS TO MARS TO EXPLORE 58 00:04:24,650 --> 00:04:27,859 THE QUESTION OF IS THERE LIFE ON MARS. 59 00:04:27,859 --> 00:04:33,539 >> ONE OF THE THINGS THAT EXCITES ME ABOUT COMING TO WORK 60 00:04:33,539 --> 00:04:35,310 EVERY DAY. 61 00:04:35,310 --> 00:04:38,719 THE WAY THAT WE DO THAT IS TO USE OUR ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 62 00:04:38,719 --> 00:04:41,229 THESE ARE SOMEWITH A COMPLEX INSTRUMENTS. 63 00:04:41,229 --> 00:04:47,020 IT'S BECAUSE WE'RE TRYING TO OBSERVE THAT THIS IS SO 64 00:04:47,020 --> 00:04:50,819 DIFFICULT BUT THE MORE WE OBSERVE MARS THE MORE 65 00:04:50,819 --> 00:04:53,630 INFORMATION WE'RE GETTING THAT IT REALLY IS A FASCINATING 66 00:04:53,630 --> 00:04:54,909 PLANET. 67 00:04:54,909 --> 00:04:58,999 FROM THE CURIOSITY ROVER WE NOW KNOW THAT MARS ONCE WAS A PLANET 68 00:04:58,999 --> 00:05:00,729 VERY MUCH LIKE EARTH. 69 00:05:00,729 --> 00:05:04,650 WITH WARM SALTY SEAS, FRESH WATER LAKES, PROBABLY SNOW 70 00:05:04,650 --> 00:05:08,210 CAPPED PEAKS AND CLOUDS AND A WATER CYCLE JUST LIKE WE'RE 71 00:05:08,210 --> 00:05:11,020 STUDYING HERE ON EARTH. 72 00:05:11,020 --> 00:05:16,699 BUT SOMETHING HAS HAPPENED TO MARS THAT LAST IT'S WATER. 73 00:05:16,699 --> 00:05:21,310 WE STILL HAVE AN ATMOSPHERE ON THE SURFACE FOR THE MOST PART. 74 00:05:21,310 --> 00:05:26,940 WE STILL HAVE THIS QUESTION, WAS LIFE ON MARS ONCE AND WE STILL 75 00:05:26,940 --> 00:05:33,919 HAVE CLUES ABOUT THAT. 76 00:05:33,919 --> 00:05:37,169 IF LIFE STARTED ON MARS 3.5†BILLION YEARS AGO, DID ANY 77 00:05:37,169 --> 00:05:38,169 SURVIVE? 78 00:05:38,169 --> 00:05:39,919 IS THERE ANY LIFE ON MARS TODAY? 79 00:05:39,919 --> 00:05:44,060 THAT'S A FASCINATING QUESTION. 80 00:05:44,060 --> 00:05:47,749 TECHNOLOGICALLY WE CAN ANSWER AND WE CAN ANSWER IT BY SENDING 81 00:05:47,749 --> 00:05:51,979 ROVERS AND BY SENDING PEEL AND I LOOK FORWARD ON THAT DAY OF OUR 82 00:05:51,979 --> 00:05:53,289 JOURNEY TO MARS. 83 00:05:53,289 --> 00:05:57,909 THE DISCOVERY WE'RE GOING TO TALK ABOUT TODAY REALLY IS MOST 84 00:05:57,909 --> 00:06:01,779 EXCITING BECAUSE IT SUGGESTS THAT IT WOULD BE POSSIBLE FOR 85 00:06:01,779 --> 00:06:05,059 THERE TO BE LIFE TODAY ON MARS AND WITH THAT I'M GOING TO TURN 86 00:06:05,059 --> 00:06:09,379 IT OVER TO JIM GREEN TO DESCRIBE A LITTLE MORE DETAIL AND 87 00:06:09,379 --> 00:06:10,379 BACKGROUND. 88 00:06:10,379 --> 00:06:11,400 >> THANK YOU VERY MUCH, JOHN. 89 00:06:11,400 --> 00:06:14,699 WE'RE MAKING ENORMOUS PROGRESS WITH OUR CURRENT ORBITERS AND 90 00:06:14,699 --> 00:06:20,719 ROVERS AS JOHN MENTIONED AND THIS IS REALLY TO LOOK AT MARS 91 00:06:20,719 --> 00:06:24,550 BECAUSE IT IS THE PLANET MOST LIKE THE EARTH. 92 00:06:24,550 --> 00:06:30,460 IT'S THE DESTINATION FOR HUMAN EXPLORATION AND BEYOND. 93 00:06:30,460 --> 00:06:35,090 IF WE GO BACK 10 BILLION YEARS AND TAKE A LOOK AT MARS IT WAS A 94 00:06:35,090 --> 00:06:37,090 VERY DIFFERENT PLANET. 95 00:06:37,090 --> 00:06:42,650 IT HAD AN EXTENSIVE ATMOSPHERE AND WHAT WE BELIEVE WAS A HUGE 96 00:06:42,650 --> 00:06:46,819 OCEAN, PERHAPS AS LARGE AS 2-THIRDS OF THE NORTHERN 97 00:06:46,819 --> 00:06:51,569 HEMISPHERE AND THAT OCEAN MAY HAVE BEEN AS MUCH AS A MILE 98 00:06:51,569 --> 00:06:52,770 DEEP. 99 00:06:52,770 --> 00:06:57,710 MARS HAD EXTENSIVE WATER RESOURCES. 100 00:06:57,710 --> 00:06:59,620 BUT SOMETHING HAPPENED. 101 00:06:59,620 --> 00:07:04,969 MARS SUFFERED A MAJOR CLIMATE CHANGE AND LOST IT'S SURFACE 102 00:07:04,969 --> 00:07:12,849 WATER. 103 00:07:12,849 --> 00:07:16,939 OUR ROVERS ARE FINDING THERE'S A LOT MORE HUMIDITY IN THE AIR 104 00:07:16,939 --> 00:07:19,400 THAN WE EVER IMAGINED. 105 00:07:19,400 --> 00:07:24,749 THE SOILS ARE MOIST AND HYDRATED FULL OF WATER. 106 00:07:24,749 --> 00:07:28,050 THESE DISCOVERIES ARE VERY IMPORTANT BUT THEY WERE ONLY 107 00:07:28,050 --> 00:07:31,729 PART OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE ON MARS THAT WE'RE JUST NOW 108 00:07:31,729 --> 00:07:34,889 BEGINNING TO UNDERSTAND. 109 00:07:34,889 --> 00:07:38,979 WHAT WE'RE GOING TO ANNOUNCE TODAY IS THAT MARS IS NOT THE 110 00:07:38,979 --> 00:07:43,550 DRY PLANET WE THOUGHT OF IN THE PAST. 111 00:07:43,550 --> 00:07:47,620 TODAY WE'RE GOING TO ANNOUNCE THAT UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES 112 00:07:47,620 --> 00:07:52,580 LIQUID WATER HAS BEEN FOUND ON MARS AND TO GIVE MORE OF A 113 00:07:52,580 --> 00:07:56,659 BACKGROUND ON THOSE RESULTS, LET ME TURN IT OVER TO MIKE MEYER. 114 00:07:56,659 --> 00:07:57,659 MICHAEL. 115 00:07:57,659 --> 00:07:58,729 >> THANK YOU, JIM. 116 00:07:58,729 --> 00:08:04,189 FOR THE FIRST TIME WE HAVE ORBITAL EVIDENCE OF THE AGENT 117 00:08:04,189 --> 00:08:09,499 THAT HAS ENABLED WATER TO FLOW ON THE SURFACE OF TODAY'S MARS. 118 00:08:09,499 --> 00:08:15,189 FOR YEARS WE WE HAD ORBITAL SPACECRAFT, IMAGING, VALLEYS, 119 00:08:15,189 --> 00:08:19,969 CREEKS, GULLIES, ALL OF THEM LOOKED LIKE WATER HAD SOMETHING 120 00:08:19,969 --> 00:08:23,569 TO DO WITH FORMING THEM BUT WE DIDN'T HAVE PROOF. 121 00:08:23,569 --> 00:08:30,190 IT WASN'T UNTIL ABOUT FOUR YEARS AGATHA WE FOUND THE ACTIVE 122 00:08:30,190 --> 00:08:35,370 PROCESS ON MARS TODAY THAT SHOWED THAT WATER WAS THE LIKELY 123 00:08:35,370 --> 00:08:37,360 CULPRIT. 124 00:08:37,360 --> 00:08:42,240 THESE ARE CALLED RETURNING, RSL THROUGH THE REST OF THE PRESS 125 00:08:42,240 --> 00:08:46,810 CONFERENCE TO SAVE EVERYBODY THE TROUBLE OF SAYING IT. 126 00:08:46,810 --> 00:08:50,990 THESE ARE DARK STREAKS THAT FORM IN LATE SPRING AND GROW THROUGH 127 00:08:50,990 --> 00:08:55,420 THE SUMMER AND THEN DISAPPEAR BY FALL. 128 00:08:55,420 --> 00:08:59,660 HOWEVER, FOR FOUR YEARS THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY HAS BEEN 129 00:08:59,660 --> 00:09:06,690 UNABLE TO EXPLAIN THE WAXING AND WANING OF THESE ON THE SURFACE. 130 00:09:06,690 --> 00:09:12,450 THEY HELPED US DETERMINE A BROADER DISTRIBUTION OF RSL THAN 131 00:09:12,450 --> 00:09:13,470 WE EXPECTED. 132 00:09:13,470 --> 00:09:19,019 WE'RE ALSO FINDING THAT THEY ARE EXPANDED LATITUDES. 133 00:09:19,019 --> 00:09:23,040 THESE OBSERVATIONS NARROWED THE CONSTRAINTS FOR HOW RSL MIGHT 134 00:09:23,040 --> 00:09:29,759 FORM BUT THERE HAVE BEEN NO EVIDENCE FOR WATER. 135 00:09:29,759 --> 00:09:34,790 UNTIL NOW IT'S THROUGH THE MULTIPLE SPACECRAFT AND 136 00:09:34,790 --> 00:09:39,269 OBSERVATIONS THAT WE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO MAKE THIS DISCOVERY. 137 00:09:39,269 --> 00:09:46,689 I'LL TURN IT OVER TO DWYANE THAT WILL PASS IT ON. 138 00:09:46,689 --> 00:09:54,190 >> LET'S PASS IT ON AND LET'S SEE WHAT THIS EXCITEMENT IS ALL 139 00:09:54,190 --> 00:10:04,139 ABOUT YOU'LL HEAR FIRST FROM ALFRED MCEWEN AND THEN 140 00:10:04,139 --> 00:10:07,749 LUJENDRA†OJHA. 141 00:10:07,749 --> 00:10:13,740 >> I'M GOING TO PROVIDE SOME BACKGROUND ON THE RSL AND HAVE 142 00:10:13,740 --> 00:10:22,250 TO EXPLAIN WHY WE HAVE SUCH A HORRIBLE ACRONYM. 143 00:10:22,250 --> 00:10:32,010 WE CAN ARGUE ABOUT HOW IT'S FORMED AND WE'RE STUCK WITH RSL. 144 00:10:32,010 --> 00:10:41,389 SO I'M GOING TO GIVE A LITTLE BACKGROUND TO DESCRIBE HIS NEW 145 00:10:41,389 --> 00:10:42,519 RESULTS. 146 00:10:42,519 --> 00:10:48,450 SO THIS TITLE SLIDE IS THE TITLEL OF THE PAPER THAT HAS 147 00:10:48,450 --> 00:10:56,370 BEEN RELEASED TODAY AND THIS IS A VIEW AS IF WE'RE ON THE 148 00:10:56,370 --> 00:10:58,400 GROURND. 149 00:10:58,400 --> 00:11:02,259 THE ARROWS ARE POINTING TO THE TIPS OF THESE RSL. 150 00:11:02,259 --> 00:11:08,069 THEY ACTUALLY BEGIN WAY UP IN THE TOPS OF THIS HILL HERE AND 151 00:11:08,069 --> 00:11:14,620 AS THEY FLOW DOWN OVER THE BEDROCK AND THAT'S WHEN THEY 152 00:11:14,620 --> 00:11:17,569 STAND OUT MORE DISTINCTLY SO THESE ARE FEATURES WE'RE TALKING 153 00:11:17,569 --> 00:11:26,620 ABOUT AND IF I CAN GO TO THE NEXT GRAPH THIS WILL SHOW YOU 154 00:11:26,620 --> 00:11:33,320 THE BLACK AND WHITE IMAGES. 155 00:11:33,320 --> 00:11:45,279 IT'S ALL ALONG THE NORTH AND WEST FACING ACRE. 156 00:11:45,279 --> 00:11:50,040 ON THE RIGHT IS AN ANIMATED GIF AND SHOWS THE SEQUENCE WHERE 157 00:11:50,040 --> 00:11:53,700 THEY START TO FORL IN THE EARLY SUMMER. 158 00:11:53,700 --> 00:11:55,270 THEY GROW. 159 00:11:55,270 --> 00:12:00,389 EITHER GRADUALLY, VERY GRADUALLY OR INCREMENTALLY AND THEN THEY 160 00:12:00,389 --> 00:12:07,940 STOP GROWING AND THEY FADE AND THEN THEY DISAPPEAR, THE 161 00:12:07,940 --> 00:12:11,510 FOLLOWING SUMMER NEW ONES GROW. 162 00:12:11,510 --> 00:12:18,180 THAT'S THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS WE HAVE BEEN OBSERVING OVER THE 163 00:12:18,180 --> 00:12:25,360 LAST FOUR YEARS OR SO AND THESE FEATURES ARE VERY SENSITIVE TO 164 00:12:25,360 --> 00:12:26,360 THE TEMPERATURE. 165 00:12:26,360 --> 00:12:27,529 THEY FORM AT DIFFERENT TILES. 166 00:12:27,529 --> 00:12:30,660 AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES ON MARS. 167 00:12:30,660 --> 00:12:35,009 ALL RELATED TO THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS AT THOSE LOCATIONS. 168 00:12:35,009 --> 00:12:39,160 SO THEY'RE VERY TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT AND THE DARKENING AND 169 00:12:39,160 --> 00:12:42,190 THE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE CAN BE EXPLAINED IF THESE ARE SEEPS 170 00:12:42,190 --> 00:12:47,610 OF WATER THAT SEEP THROUGH THE SHALLOW SURFACE LAYER AND DARKEN 171 00:12:47,610 --> 00:12:51,779 THE VERY SURFACE LAYER BUT WE HAD NO DIRECT DETECTION OF 172 00:12:51,779 --> 00:12:52,779 WATER. 173 00:12:52,779 --> 00:12:56,750 THAT WAS JUST OUR BEST GUESS OF WHAT THESE WERE. 174 00:12:56,750 --> 00:13:02,310 YOU GO TO THE NEXT SLIDE THIS IS A GLOBAL MAP OF MARS AND IT 175 00:13:02,310 --> 00:13:04,990 SHOWS TOTALLY CONFIRMED RSL. 176 00:13:04,990 --> 00:13:08,209 THIS NEEDS TO BE UPDATED. 177 00:13:08,209 --> 00:13:10,460 IT'S THE SAME GENERAL PATTERN. 178 00:13:10,460 --> 00:13:12,230 THERE'S THREE REGIONS. 179 00:13:12,230 --> 00:13:15,490 ONE IS THE SOUTHERN MID LATITUDES. 180 00:13:15,490 --> 00:13:24,310 AND THERE ARE A FEW OTHER SPOTS AND IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 181 00:13:24,310 --> 00:13:28,290 WE'VE SEEN QUITE A FEW OF THESE. 182 00:13:28,290 --> 00:13:42,350 HE'S GOING TO TALK ABOUT HIS ANOTHER IS THE CRATER I SHOWED 183 00:13:42,350 --> 00:13:47,670 YOU THE ANIMATED GIF FOR AND THEN WE SEE THEM IN THE CENTRAL 184 00:13:47,670 --> 00:13:55,640 PEAKS AND JOHN MENTIONED THE VIKING RESULTS. 185 00:13:55,640 --> 00:14:02,620 WELL, NORMAN HOROWITZ WAS ON THE EXPERIMENT OF THE VIKING LANDERS 186 00:14:02,620 --> 00:14:07,100 DH WAS SEARCHING FOR LIFE ON MARS. 187 00:14:07,100 --> 00:14:12,800 IT HAD A NEGATIVE RESULT ALTHOUGH THERE MAY BE REASONS 188 00:14:12,800 --> 00:14:20,769 FOR THAT AND THEN THE LAST SLIDE I'M GOING TO SHOW YOU, THIS JUST 189 00:14:20,769 --> 00:14:25,519 SHOWS MARS AND IT'S ORBIT AROUND THE SUN, THIS IS TO EXPLAIN 190 00:14:25,519 --> 00:14:28,370 ABOUT WHY WE SEE THESE AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND DIFFERENT 191 00:14:28,370 --> 00:14:36,690 PLACES AND IN SEASONS LIKE EARTH WHEN THE POLES ARE POINTING 192 00:14:36,690 --> 00:14:44,540 TOWARD THE SUN IT'S SUMMER AND WINTER WHEN IT'S POINTING AWAY. 193 00:14:44,540 --> 00:14:50,930 MARS HAS A NON-CENTRIC ORBIT. 194 00:14:50,930 --> 00:14:56,089 WE HAVE SHORT AND HOT SOUTHERN SUMMERS AND COOLER LONGER 195 00:14:56,089 --> 00:15:02,060 NORTHERN SUMMERS SO WE SEE THE RSL IN SOUTHERN SUMMERS AND 196 00:15:02,060 --> 00:15:05,649 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE, WE SEE THEM IN NORTHERN SPRING AND THE 197 00:15:05,649 --> 00:15:09,779 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AND IN THE EQUATOR WE SEE THEM YEAR AROUND. 198 00:15:09,779 --> 00:15:16,250 THE SLOPE IS ACTIVE IN THE SEASON WHEN THAT SLOPE IS 199 00:15:16,250 --> 00:15:21,130 GETTING THE MOST SUN. 200 00:15:21,130 --> 00:15:25,209 WITH THAT I'LL TURN IT OVER TO EXPLAIN THE NEW RESULTS. 201 00:15:25,209 --> 00:15:27,149 >> GOOD MORNING. 202 00:15:27,149 --> 00:15:33,830 IT'S TRULY AN HONOR TO BE ADDRESSING THIS CROWD ABOUT OUR 203 00:15:33,830 --> 00:15:34,830 RESULT AND DISCOVERY. 204 00:15:34,830 --> 00:15:39,139 WE HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATING THESE NARROW STREETS ON MARS EVER 205 00:15:39,139 --> 00:15:45,720 SINCE THEIR DISCOVERY: AND WE KNOW FROM PRIOR INVESTIGATIONS 206 00:15:45,720 --> 00:15:53,040 THAT IT'S IDEAL FOR LIQUID WATER TO EXIST ON THE SURFACE. 207 00:15:53,040 --> 00:15:58,449 HOWEVER, THE KEY EVIDENCE WAS MISSING AND THAT WAS THE 208 00:15:58,449 --> 00:15:59,480 CHEMICAL IDENTITY. 209 00:15:59,480 --> 00:16:04,129 AN EXCELLENT WAY TO VALIDATE THE HYPOTHESIS THAT LIQUID WATER 210 00:16:04,129 --> 00:16:11,769 PLAYS A KEY ROLE IN THE MECHANISM OF THESE IS WHAT I'LL 211 00:16:11,769 --> 00:16:14,380 BE TALKING ABOUT IN THIS SLIDE. 212 00:16:14,380 --> 00:16:20,790 SO IF YOU SEE THE SLIDE THERE'S SHOOTING RAYS DOWN. 213 00:16:20,790 --> 00:16:27,351 THAT'S BASICALLY AN EXCELLENT EXAMPLE TO SEE THE THEORY IS WE 214 00:16:27,351 --> 00:16:29,600 CAN RECOGNIZE VARIOUS COLORS. 215 00:16:29,600 --> 00:16:35,879 THE REASON THEY LOOK GREEN TO OUR HUMAN EYES IS THE 216 00:16:35,879 --> 00:16:49,040 CHLOROPHYLL ABSORBS ALL THE OTHERS AND THE GREEN LIGHT. 217 00:16:49,040 --> 00:16:53,759 WE CAN VIEW THE SURFACE OF MARS IN DIFFERENT COLOR WHICH IS WHAT 218 00:16:53,759 --> 00:16:56,839 YOU SEE IN THIS ILLUSTRATION. 219 00:16:56,839 --> 00:17:02,350 AND SEE HOW LIGHT IS ABSORBED BY MINERALS ON THE SURFACE. 220 00:17:02,350 --> 00:17:09,560 WE HAVE AN EXCELLENT ONE ON BOARD WHICH IS WHAT YOU SEE AND 221 00:17:09,560 --> 00:17:11,760 IT CAN OBSERVE THE SURFACE OF MARS. 222 00:17:11,760 --> 00:17:17,600 WHAT WE DID IS WE WENT THROUGH THESE PLACES WHERE WE SEE THESE 223 00:17:17,600 --> 00:17:22,549 AND OBSERVED THE INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND THE SURFACE 224 00:17:22,549 --> 00:17:25,730 MATERIAL TO SEE IF THERE WAS ANY EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT OUR 225 00:17:25,730 --> 00:17:26,730 HYPOTHESIS. 226 00:17:26,730 --> 00:17:36,350 SO IF YOU GO TO THE NEXT SLIDE, YOU'RE SEEING ANIMATED DARK 227 00:17:36,350 --> 00:17:40,320 NARROW SEEPS FLOWING OUT OF THEM. 228 00:17:40,320 --> 00:17:42,940 THIS CAN CONTAIN HUNDREDS. 229 00:17:42,940 --> 00:17:47,669 THIS IS THE SAME PEAK THAT ALFRED WAS EARLIER TALKING 230 00:17:47,669 --> 00:17:48,669 ABOUT. 231 00:17:48,669 --> 00:17:51,520 WE LOOKED AT THE SURFACE USING THE INSTRUMENT I DESCRIBED 232 00:17:51,520 --> 00:17:54,390 BEFORE TO SEE IF THERE WAS ANY EVIDENCE FOR THE LIQUID WATER 233 00:17:54,390 --> 00:17:55,410 HYPOTHESIS. 234 00:17:55,410 --> 00:17:59,450 SO IF YOU GO TO THE NEXT SLIDE, I CAN SHOW YOU SOME OF THE 235 00:17:59,450 --> 00:18:01,940 RESULTS. 236 00:18:01,940 --> 00:18:07,580 HERE YOU CAN SEE TWO BLACK LINES WHICH ARE OUR OBSERVATION FROM 237 00:18:07,580 --> 00:18:11,429 THE EXACT PLACE WHERE WE SAW THE NARROW STREETS IN THE PREVIOUS 238 00:18:11,429 --> 00:18:12,429 ONE. 239 00:18:12,429 --> 00:18:17,210 THESE SQUIGGLY LINES YOU CAN OBSERVE DIPS IN THEM. 240 00:18:17,210 --> 00:18:25,460 IF YOU READ THE AXIS YOU CAN SEE THEY'RE FROM 1.9 MICRONS WHICH 241 00:18:25,460 --> 00:18:29,809 MEANS LIGHT IS BEING ABSORBED BY WHATEVER IS PRESENT ON THE 242 00:18:29,809 --> 00:18:30,809 SURFACE. 243 00:18:30,809 --> 00:18:40,100 YOU SEE THE SAME THING ABOUT 2.14 MICRONS AND THERE'S A FEW 244 00:18:40,100 --> 00:18:43,930 OTHER SMALLER ABSORPTION FEATURES HERE. 245 00:18:43,930 --> 00:18:48,820 WE CAN GO TO OUR LABORATORY AND FIND OUT WHICH ONES CAN ABSORB 246 00:18:48,820 --> 00:18:58,740 LIGHT AT THE WAVELENGTH AND I LABELED IT LABORATORY 247 00:18:58,740 --> 00:19:00,160 OBSERVATION. 248 00:19:00,160 --> 00:19:10,789 IT'S WELL MAPPED BY SALT AND CHLORINE AND THEY'RE HYDRATED. 249 00:19:10,789 --> 00:19:17,740 THE FACT THAT THEY'RE HYDRATED MEANS THERE'S PRESENCE OF WATER 250 00:19:17,740 --> 00:19:19,779 IN THEIR CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. 251 00:19:19,779 --> 00:19:25,140 IT OBSERVES THE SURFACE OF MARS EVERY DAY AT 3:00†P.M. 252 00:19:25,140 --> 00:19:28,740 WHICH IS THE DRIEST TIME OF THE DAY SO 253 00:19:28,740 --> 00:19:31,990 MOST OF THE LIQUID WATER WOULD HAVE BEEN COMPLETELY EVAPORATED 254 00:19:31,990 --> 00:19:36,770 HOWEVER, THE MOLECULAR WATER TRAPPED INSIDE THE SALT 255 00:19:36,770 --> 00:19:41,000 STRUCTURE WOULD BE MORE STABLE AND THAT'S WHAT WE OBSERVE HERE. 256 00:19:41,000 --> 00:19:45,510 THIS MEANS THAT THE SOURCE OF HYDRATION OR SOURCE OF MOLECULAR 257 00:19:45,510 --> 00:19:52,700 WATER IS EITHER DUE TO THE FEATURES OF RSL OR OTHER 258 00:19:52,700 --> 00:19:59,710 PROCESSES THAT CREATED THESE 259 00:19:59,710 --> 00:20:00,710 STREAKS. 260 00:20:00,710 --> 00:20:07,399 REGARDLESS IT MEANS THEY'RE FORMED INTO CONTEMPORARY†LIQUID 261 00:20:07,399 --> 00:20:08,399 WATER. 262 00:20:08,399 --> 00:20:16,490 IF WE GO TO THE NEXT SLIDE, YOU CAN SEE ARROWS POINTING TO SOME 263 00:20:16,490 --> 00:20:19,820 DATED STREETS FLOWING OUT OF THE CRATER WALL. 264 00:20:19,820 --> 00:20:25,190 THIS IS FROM LOCATION IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE OF MARS. 265 00:20:25,190 --> 00:20:28,350 WE HAVE MULTIPLE OBSERVATIONS FROM DIFFERENT TIMES. 266 00:20:28,350 --> 00:20:33,779 HOWEVER WE SEE THE HYDRATED SALT ONLY WHEN THE STREETS ARE 267 00:20:33,779 --> 00:20:34,779 BIGGEST. 268 00:20:34,779 --> 00:20:38,809 OTHER TIMES WE DON'T SEE HYDRATION. 269 00:20:38,809 --> 00:20:47,510 IT'S THE SOURCE OF MOLECULAR WATER IS EITHER DUE TO THE 270 00:20:47,510 --> 00:20:52,640 PRESENCE OF RSL OR SOME OTHER PROCESSES THAT CREATED RSL. 271 00:20:52,640 --> 00:20:58,010 REGARDLESS, AGAIN, THE PRESENCE OF HYDRATED SALT MEANS THAT 272 00:20:58,010 --> 00:20:59,140 THESE FEATURES ARE DUE TO CONTEMPORARY†LIQUID WATER. 273 00:20:59,140 --> 00:21:07,250 IF WE GO TO THE NEXT SLIDE, THE PRESENCE ALSO HAS SOME OTHER BIG 274 00:21:07,250 --> 00:21:10,720 IMPLICATION FOR WATER ON MARS. 275 00:21:10,720 --> 00:21:14,740 YOU CAN SEE THE PURE WATER STABILITY HERE ON EARTH. 276 00:21:14,740 --> 00:21:19,039 IF YOU TAKE LIQUID WATER ON EARTH IT WILL REMAIN IN THE 277 00:21:19,039 --> 00:21:22,840 LIQUID FORM UNTIL YOU HIT 0 DEGREES CELCIUS. 278 00:21:22,840 --> 00:21:26,260 AT 100 DEGREES IT WILL MELT. 279 00:21:26,260 --> 00:21:37,090 ON 280 00:21:37,090 --> 00:21:45,070 MARS IT'S THE SAME IT WILL THIN BUT IT WILL START BOILING 281 00:21:45,070 --> 00:21:48,720 AS SOON AS IT REACHES CLOSE TO 10 DEGREES CELSIUS. 282 00:21:48,720 --> 00:21:55,929 THEREFORE PURE LIQUID WATER IS UNSTABLE ON MARS. 283 00:21:55,929 --> 00:22:00,399 NEXT CONSIDER A WATER MIXED. 284 00:22:00,399 --> 00:22:04,720 IF THAT HAPPENS THEN THE STABILITY OF A SALTY LIQUID 285 00:22:04,720 --> 00:22:06,710 WATER ON THE SURFACE OF MARS VASTLY INCREASES. 286 00:22:06,710 --> 00:22:12,840 AS YOU CAN SEE IN THE GRAPHIC, IT WILL REMAIN IN A LIQUID FORM 287 00:22:12,840 --> 00:22:16,640 UNTIL WE HIT NEGATIVE 70 DEGREES CELSIUS AND WILL NOT START 288 00:22:16,640 --> 00:22:21,240 BOILING UNTIL IT'S 24 DEGREES CELSIUS. 289 00:22:21,240 --> 00:22:32,690 THEREFORE THE PRESENCE INCREASES ON MARS. 290 00:22:32,690 --> 00:22:36,989 I'M GOING TO TURN IT TO MARY BETH. 291 00:22:36,989 --> 00:22:40,240 >> THANK YOU, GENTLEMEN AND WE WILL NOW HEAR FROM MARY BETH 292 00:22:40,240 --> 00:22:41,240 WILHELM. 293 00:22:41,240 --> 00:22:45,539 WE WILL GO TO THE WEST COAST. 294 00:22:45,539 --> 00:22:47,160 MARY BETH. 295 00:22:47,160 --> 00:22:48,780 >> THANKS DEWAYNE. 296 00:22:48,780 --> 00:22:52,760 HE DISCUSSED THE FIRST MAJOR IMPLICATION OF OUR EARTH WHICH 297 00:22:52,760 --> 00:22:56,179 IS INCREASED STABILITY OF WATER ON MARS. 298 00:22:56,179 --> 00:23:03,970 NOW I'LL DISCUSS THE BROADER SIGNIFICANCE OF OUR FINDINGS. 299 00:23:03,970 --> 00:23:07,321 SO THEY HAVE A SPECIAL CAPABILITY PER TAKE TO THE 300 00:23:07,321 --> 00:23:10,200 ABSORPTION OF ATMOSPHERIC WATER. 301 00:23:10,200 --> 00:23:16,880 BASICALLY, IF THE HUMIDITY GETS HIGH ENOUGH THE SALTS WILL 302 00:23:16,880 --> 00:23:21,120 ABSORB THE ATMOSPHERIC WATER UNTIL IT FORMS A LIQUID 303 00:23:21,120 --> 00:23:28,680 SOLUTION. 304 00:23:28,680 --> 00:23:31,510 SO THIS SORT OF PHYSICAL PROCESS CAN EXPLAIN THE FUTURES THAT WE 305 00:23:31,510 --> 00:23:33,120 OBSERVED HERE. 306 00:23:33,120 --> 00:23:38,059 THE DARKER PACKAGES MAY BE FORMED. 307 00:23:38,059 --> 00:23:42,320 IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE THAT THE FORMATION OF RSL IS DUE TO OTHER 308 00:23:42,320 --> 00:23:45,970 TYPES OF PROCESSES WHICH WE WON'T GO TO HERE. 309 00:23:45,970 --> 00:23:52,390 FOR CHLRORINES HAVE AN ABILITY TO DISSOLVE IN WATER. 310 00:23:52,390 --> 00:23:55,510 SO OUR OBSERVATIONS COULD ALSO BE EXPLAINED BY OTHER LIQUID 311 00:23:55,510 --> 00:23:59,230 WATER SOURCE DISSOLVING FOR THOSE NATURALLY PRESENT IN THE 312 00:23:59,230 --> 00:24:02,279 SOIL AND LATER DEPOSITING THEM AS A SOLID IN HIGHER 313 00:24:02,279 --> 00:24:05,399 CONCENTRATION. 314 00:24:05,399 --> 00:24:11,940 SO HERE YOU SEE A MAP. 315 00:24:11,940 --> 00:24:17,130 THEY INDICATE PLACES ON THE SURFACE WHERE THEY HAVE 316 00:24:17,130 --> 00:24:20,320 PREVIOUSLY BEEN DETECTED BY ROVERS OR LANDERS. 317 00:24:20,320 --> 00:24:29,940 IT IS SUSPECTED TO BE PRESENT AT BOTH OF THE VIKING LANDINGS AND 318 00:24:29,940 --> 00:24:37,220 WAS SEEN IN THE LATE 2000S. 319 00:24:37,220 --> 00:24:41,830 OUR DETECTION AT RSL SITES SHOWN HERE IN BLUE ARE THE FIRST TO BE 320 00:24:41,830 --> 00:24:45,190 MADE USING DATA ACQUIRED BY AN ORBITER. 321 00:24:45,190 --> 00:24:48,120 WE INCREASED THE NUMBER OF KNOWN LOCATIONS OF THIS IMPORTANT 322 00:24:48,120 --> 00:24:52,409 RESOURCE ON THE SURFACE SHOWING THAT THEY'RE PERHAPS MORE WIDELY 323 00:24:52,409 --> 00:24:56,770 DISTRIBUTED THAN PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT. 324 00:24:56,770 --> 00:25:01,200 SO TO SUMMARIZE, OUR FINDINGS STRONGLY SUGGEST THAT THESE ARE 325 00:25:01,200 --> 00:25:04,370 FORMED BY LIQUID WATER ON PRESENT DAY MARS. 326 00:25:04,370 --> 00:25:08,880 THE DETECTION OF HYDRATED PER CHLROATES INDICATES IT'S BRINEY 327 00:25:08,880 --> 00:25:10,940 AND NOT PURE. 328 00:25:10,940 --> 00:25:19,830 SO WATER AS I'M SURE MANY OF YOU 329 00:25:19,830 --> 00:25:22,399 HEARD US SAY ON MULTIPLE OCCASIONS IS AN ESSENTIAL 330 00:25:22,399 --> 00:25:24,539 INGREDIENT FOR LIFE. 331 00:25:24,539 --> 00:25:27,460 OUR RESULTS MAY POINT TO MORE HABITABLE CONDITIONS ON THE NEAR 332 00:25:27,460 --> 00:25:30,510 SURFACE OF MARS THAN PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT. 333 00:25:30,510 --> 00:25:35,230 HERE POTENTIAL HABITABILITY IS UNCLEAR. 334 00:25:35,230 --> 00:25:39,090 TO ASSESS HABITABILITY WE'D NEED TO DETERMINE HOW COLD AND HOW 335 00:25:39,090 --> 00:25:44,970 CONCENTRATE THE BRINE IS BUT THE DETECTION WARRANTS FURTHER 336 00:25:44,970 --> 00:25:52,250 CHARACTERIZATION AND EXPLORATION OF THESE UNIQUE REGIONS ON MARS. 337 00:25:52,250 --> 00:26:03,320 WATER MAYBE IMPORTANT FOR EXPLORERS OF MARS. 338 00:26:03,320 --> 00:26:06,799 LOOKING FORWARD IS IMPERATIVE FOR US TO FURTHER UNDERSTAND THE 339 00:26:06,799 --> 00:26:09,260 SOURCE OF THIS WATER FOR THESE FEATURES. 340 00:26:09,260 --> 00:26:12,250 AND WITH THAT I'LL TURN IT BACK OVER TO YOU DWAYNE AT NASA 341 00:26:12,250 --> 00:26:13,250 HEADQUATERS. 342 00:26:13,250 --> 00:26:14,590 >> THANK YOU. 343 00:26:14,590 --> 00:26:19,350 NOW WE'LL TRANSITION TO OUR QUESTION AND ANSWER. 344 00:26:19,350 --> 00:26:22,350 WE HAVE A LOT OF MEDIA NOT ONLY HERE IN WASHINGTON BUT ON THE 345 00:26:22,350 --> 00:26:24,669 PHONE LINES AND WE WANT TO GET TO SOCIAL MEDIA. 346 00:26:24,669 --> 00:26:27,179 SO I'M GOING TO ASK YOU WAIT FOR THE MIC. 347 00:26:27,179 --> 00:26:29,190 PLEASE LIMIT YOUR QUESTION TO ONE. 348 00:26:29,190 --> 00:26:31,910 WE'LL TRY TO GET TO AS MANY QUESTIONS. 349 00:26:31,910 --> 00:26:34,610 OUR PARTICIPANTS WILL BE HERE FOLLOWING THE PRESS CONFERENCE. 350 00:26:34,610 --> 00:26:37,350 WE HAVE A GENTLEMAN HERE. 351 00:26:37,350 --> 00:26:42,270 IF WE CAN GET A MIC HERE, YOUR NAME. 352 00:26:42,270 --> 00:26:44,789 >> I'D LIKE TO TRY TO PIN YOU DOWN GIVEN ALL THIS NEW 353 00:26:44,789 --> 00:26:48,140 EVIDENCE, HOW LIKELY DO YOU THINK IT IS, A 1 TO 10 POINT 354 00:26:48,140 --> 00:26:51,440 SCALE OR WHATEVER YOU CHOOSE THAT TODAY THERE IS SOME FORM OF 355 00:26:51,440 --> 00:26:52,720 LIFE ON MARS? 356 00:26:52,720 --> 00:26:53,720 >> OKAY. 357 00:26:53,720 --> 00:26:59,929 I GUESS EVERYONE IS LOOKING AT ME SO I'LL GIVE YOU MY FEELING. 358 00:26:59,929 --> 00:27:04,780 WHEN YOU LOOK AT EARTH, WATER IS AN ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT IN JUST 359 00:27:04,780 --> 00:27:08,049 ABOUT†-- EVERYWHERE WE GO WHETHER IT'S LIQUID WATER, 360 00:27:08,049 --> 00:27:16,200 WHETHER IT'S DEEP IN THE EARTH OR IN REGIONS WE FIND. 361 00:27:16,200 --> 00:27:19,890 WE HAVEN'T BEEN ABLE TO ANSWER THE QUESTION IS LIFE BEYOND 362 00:27:19,890 --> 00:27:23,990 EARTH BUT IT'S CRITICAL OF THAT. 363 00:27:23,990 --> 00:27:28,690 WE NOW HAVE GREAT OPPORTUNITIES TO BE IN THE RIGHT LOCATIONS ON 364 00:27:28,690 --> 00:27:35,520 MARS TO INVESTIGATE THAT AND I THINK THE ACTUAL WATER ON THE 365 00:27:35,520 --> 00:27:41,149 SURFACE ALLOWS US WITH SURFACE MOBILITY IN OUR ASSETS NOW AND 366 00:27:41,149 --> 00:27:45,050 IN THE FUTURE TO BE ABLE TO INVESTIGATE THAT AND LOOK FOR 367 00:27:45,050 --> 00:27:47,389 LIFE AND MAKE THAT POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION. 368 00:27:47,389 --> 00:27:49,519 >> GO AHEAD, JOHN. 369 00:27:49,519 --> 00:27:50,940 I'M SORRY. 370 00:27:50,940 --> 00:27:53,900 >> I JUST THINK THE REALLY EXCITING THING ABOUT THIS IS 371 00:27:53,900 --> 00:28:02,200 THAT OUR VIEW OF MARS OF THIS ANCIENT MARS HAS BEEN REALLY 372 00:28:02,200 --> 00:28:08,389 ABOUT SEEKING CHEMICAL FOSSILS OF POSSIBLE PAST LIFE ON MARS. 373 00:28:08,389 --> 00:28:13,200 THE EXISTENCE OF LIQUID WATER EVEN IF IT'S SUPER SALTY WATER 374 00:28:13,200 --> 00:28:18,060 GIVES THE POSSIBILITY THAT IF THERE'S LIFE ON MARS THAT WE 375 00:28:18,060 --> 00:28:22,309 HAVE A WAY TO DESCRIBE HOW IT WOULD SURVIVE AND WE'RE NOW AT A 376 00:28:22,309 --> 00:28:29,960 POINT TECHNOLOGICALLY THAT WE HAVE THE CAPABILITY TO GO THERE 377 00:28:29,960 --> 00:28:33,040 AND ASK THIS QUESTION OF IS THERE LIFE ON MARS AND ANSWER 378 00:28:33,040 --> 00:28:34,040 IT. 379 00:28:34,040 --> 00:28:36,720 THIS IS TO ME THE MOST EXCITING THING IS NOW THAT QUESTION IS 380 00:28:36,720 --> 00:28:40,620 NOT AN ABSTRACT SCIENTIFIC QUESTION. 381 00:28:40,620 --> 00:28:47,990 IT'S A CONCRETE ONE THAT WE CAN ANSWER. 382 00:28:47,990 --> 00:28:53,110 >> WE HAVE ONLY ONE EXAMPLE OF LIFE. 383 00:28:53,110 --> 00:28:54,110 AND THAT'S US. 384 00:28:54,110 --> 00:28:55,110 THIS IS IT. 385 00:28:55,110 --> 00:28:56,260 ON PLANET EARTH. 386 00:28:56,260 --> 00:28:58,649 WE DON'T KNOW HOW IT STARTED. 387 00:28:58,649 --> 00:29:02,110 SO ONE OF THE THINGS THAT WE FOUND AT MARS IS WE KNOW THAT 388 00:29:02,110 --> 00:29:05,519 MARS COULD HAVE SUPPORTED LIFE AT LEAST WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT 389 00:29:05,519 --> 00:29:06,519 LIFE. 390 00:29:06,519 --> 00:29:09,690 BUT WE DON'T KNOW HOW LIFE STARTED HERE SO WE DON'T KNOW IF 391 00:29:09,690 --> 00:29:12,539 IT IS POSSIBLE FOR LIFE TO HAVE STARTED ON MARS. 392 00:29:12,539 --> 00:29:17,440 SO THAT'S A HUGE QUESTION AND ONLY THROUGH THAT EXPLORATION 393 00:29:17,440 --> 00:29:27,929 ARE WE GOING TO NARROW IT DOWN 394 00:29:27,929 --> 00:29:34,490 AND GET A DIRECT ANSWER WE CAN BEGIN A BETTER SEARCH AND BE 395 00:29:34,490 --> 00:29:35,940 MORE METHODICAL. 396 00:29:35,940 --> 00:29:39,919 WE CAN LOOK AND SEE IF WE CAN DETERMINE IF THERE IS SOME SORT 397 00:29:39,919 --> 00:29:43,960 OF NETWORK THAT MAY BE SUPPLYING THESE. 398 00:29:43,960 --> 00:29:44,960 WE DON'T KNOW THAT. 399 00:29:44,960 --> 00:29:49,600 THERE'S OTHER THEORIES AND OTHER IDEAS BUT THAT IS THE NEXT STEP. 400 00:29:49,600 --> 00:29:53,870 HOW MUCH WATER THAT WHEN IT LEFT THE PLANET WENT INTO THE SOIL? 401 00:29:53,870 --> 00:29:59,510 AND WENT UNDER GROUND AND IS THERE EXPLORATION FOR US. 402 00:29:59,510 --> 00:30:06,419 AND IF THERE ARE RESOURCES WE CAN PROBE WE MIGHT BE ABLE TO 403 00:30:06,419 --> 00:30:09,590 ANSWER THAT QUESTION PRETTY QUICKLY. 404 00:30:09,590 --> 00:30:11,210 >> SO THAT QUESTION PROBABLY KNOCKED OFF HALF OF THE 405 00:30:11,210 --> 00:30:12,650 QUESTIONS WE'RE GOING TO GET TODAY. 406 00:30:12,650 --> 00:30:16,779 LET ME SEE IF OUR SCIENTISTS IN FRANCE OR MARY BETH IF YOU ALL 407 00:30:16,779 --> 00:30:18,330 WANT TO CHIME IN WITH THAT QUESTION. 408 00:30:18,330 --> 00:30:20,409 WE'LL START WITH FRANCE. 409 00:30:20,409 --> 00:30:21,409 ALFRED. 410 00:30:21,409 --> 00:30:27,250 >> I WILL JUST SAY I THINK THE POSSIBILITY OF LIFE IS CERTAINLY 411 00:30:27,250 --> 00:30:34,039 HIGH AND THERE'S LIFE SOMEWHERE IN MARS AND MARS HAS RECEIVED 412 00:30:34,039 --> 00:30:35,409 METEORITES FROM EARTH. 413 00:30:35,409 --> 00:30:39,970 IT'S BEEN CONTAMINATED FROM EARTH AND IT'S VERY LIKELY, I 414 00:30:39,970 --> 00:30:45,970 THINK, THAT THERE'S LIFE SOMEWHERE IN THE CRUST OF MARS 415 00:30:45,970 --> 00:30:49,440 MICROBES BUT WHERE IS IT? 416 00:30:49,440 --> 00:30:51,690 HOW ACCESSIBLE IS IT? 417 00:30:51,690 --> 00:30:53,889 MAYBE THERE'S SOMETHING THAT WE CAN FIND CLOSE TO THE SURFACE 418 00:30:53,889 --> 00:30:57,630 AND THAT'S WHAT IS EXCITING BUT TO ME THE CHANCES OF THERE BEING 419 00:30:57,630 --> 00:31:04,820 LIFE IN THE SUB SURFACE OF MARS HAS ALWAYS BEEN VERY HIGH. 420 00:31:04,820 --> 00:31:12,299 >> JUST A REMINDER, SEND IN YOUR QUESTIONS AT†#ASK NASA AND WE'LL 421 00:31:12,299 --> 00:31:14,750 CONTINUE HERE AT HEADQUATERS BEFORE WE GO TO THE PHONE LINES 422 00:31:14,750 --> 00:31:23,289 AND WE HAVE THIS LADY HERE. 423 00:31:23,289 --> 00:31:24,799 >> WE PUBLISH IN ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 424 00:31:24,799 --> 00:31:28,261 HOW ARE TODAY'S ANNOUNCEMENTS EFFECT YOUR TIME LINE OR TIME 425 00:31:28,261 --> 00:31:31,550 FRAME FROM GOING AND THE POSSIBILITY OF COMING BACK AND 426 00:31:31,550 --> 00:31:37,630 IS ANY BUDGET ALLOCATED FINDING ANY SIGN OF CULTURE RESOURCES ON 427 00:31:37,630 --> 00:31:38,630 NASA? 428 00:31:38,630 --> 00:31:41,320 YOU'RE LOOKING AT THE WATER BUT WHAT ABOUT POTENTIAL HABITATS OR 429 00:31:41,320 --> 00:31:45,919 ANYTHING LIKE THAT AS WELL. 430 00:31:45,919 --> 00:31:49,720 >> WE DO HAVE A BUDGET FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION 431 00:31:49,720 --> 00:31:54,830 AND A NUMBER OF EXCITING MISSIONS THAT ARE QUEUED UP. 432 00:31:54,830 --> 00:31:59,539 NASA LEAD AND EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY LEAD WITH THE PARTNERSHIP 433 00:31:59,539 --> 00:32:00,570 WITH RUSSIA. 434 00:32:00,570 --> 00:32:04,990 SO WE HAVE THE INSIGHT LANDER WHICH IS GOING TO LAUNCH NEXT 435 00:32:04,990 --> 00:32:13,870 YEAR AND WE'RE GOING TO PUT IN A SEISMOMETER. 436 00:32:13,870 --> 00:32:30,740 AND IN 2018 THEY HAVE A LANDER GOING DOWN AND IN PARTNERSHIP 437 00:32:30,740 --> 00:32:34,919 WITH NASA WE HAVE AN ORGANIC MOLECULAR ANALYZER AND THEY HAVE 438 00:32:34,919 --> 00:32:38,830 A DRILL TO DRILL UNDER THE SURFACE AND BRING UP MATERIALS 439 00:32:38,830 --> 00:32:45,149 AND SEE IF THERE'S ORGANIC MATTER MEANING RELATED TO 440 00:32:45,149 --> 00:32:48,490 COMPOUNDS BUT SPECIFICALLY ONES THAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN CREATED BY 441 00:32:48,490 --> 00:32:49,490 LIFE. 442 00:32:49,490 --> 00:32:50,490 SO THAT'S VERY PIETED. 443 00:32:50,490 --> 00:32:55,610 THEN IN 2020 IS OUR NEXT BIG NASA ROVER THAT WILL ACTUALLY 444 00:32:55,610 --> 00:32:58,580 COLLECT SAMPLES SO THAT EVENTUALLY WE CAN BRING THEM 445 00:32:58,580 --> 00:33:05,179 BACK TO EARTH AND SEE IF WE SEE ANY SIGNS OF ANCIENT CONDITIONS 446 00:33:05,179 --> 00:33:07,929 THAT WOULD TELL US THERE'S LIFE ON MARS. 447 00:33:07,929 --> 00:33:08,929 THAT'S JUST THE BEGINNING. 448 00:33:08,929 --> 00:33:10,790 THAT'S IN THE NEXT FIVE YEARS. 449 00:33:10,790 --> 00:33:13,980 BEYOND THAT, WE HAVE PLANS AS PART OF OUR JOURNEY TO MARS THAT 450 00:33:13,980 --> 00:33:16,279 INCLUDE DEVELOPING THE SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM. 451 00:33:16,279 --> 00:33:19,659 A BIG ROCKET THAT WILL IN THE FUTURE BE ABLE TO GET PAYLOADS 452 00:33:19,659 --> 00:33:22,679 TO MARS IN PERHAPS A ROUND TRIP MISSION. 453 00:33:22,679 --> 00:33:24,779 WE'RE STILL SKETCHING OUT WHAT THAT LOOKS LIKE IT FELT FUTURE 454 00:33:24,779 --> 00:33:28,230 IS ALWAYS MORE FUZZY THAN THE CURRENT BUT THESE EXCITING 455 00:33:28,230 --> 00:33:33,210 RESULTS ONLY ENCOURAGE US FOR THE FUTURE OF MARS EXPLORATION. 456 00:33:33,210 --> 00:33:37,040 >> WE SHOULDN'T DISCOUNT WHAT WE HAVE AS ASSETS THAT ARE THERE. 457 00:33:37,040 --> 00:33:39,100 THEY WERE RELATIVELY HEALTHY. 458 00:33:39,100 --> 00:33:44,150 IT'S DOING A FABULOUS JOB AND HAS HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGES AND 459 00:33:44,150 --> 00:33:48,790 AS WE TALKED ABOUT WHAT IT'S BEEN DOING, YOU KNOW, WHEN YOU 460 00:33:48,790 --> 00:33:51,659 LOOK AT EVEN THOUGH IT'S BEEN THERE NEARLY NINE YEARS IT'S 461 00:33:51,659 --> 00:33:56,700 ONLY REALLY MAPPED ABOUT 3 OR 4% IN HIGH RESOLUTION OF MARS. 462 00:33:56,700 --> 00:34:03,669 THERE'S SO MUCH MORE WE NEED TO DO ALL OVER THE PLACE. 463 00:34:03,669 --> 00:34:08,870 IT WILL ENABLE US TO NARROW DOWN ON BETTER PLACES OR MORE 464 00:34:08,870 --> 00:34:14,679 ACCESSIBLE PLACES WHERE WE CAN GET ACCESS TO REALLY THOROUGHLY 465 00:34:14,679 --> 00:34:15,679 EXAMINE. 466 00:34:15,679 --> 00:34:17,879 CURIOSITY IS IN A NICE LOCATION. 467 00:34:17,879 --> 00:34:19,020 IT'S IN MT. 468 00:34:19,020 --> 00:34:20,540 SHARP AND DOING GREAT. 469 00:34:20,540 --> 00:34:24,840 THERE'S POTENTIALLY DARK STREAKS. 470 00:34:24,840 --> 00:34:26,440 WE DON'T KNOW MUCH ABOUT THOSE. 471 00:34:26,440 --> 00:34:30,179 WE DON'T KNOW. 472 00:34:30,179 --> 00:34:34,899 THERE'S A POSSIBILITY THAT MORE OBSERVATIONS WILL ELIMINATE 473 00:34:34,899 --> 00:34:39,310 THOSE OR GIVE US MORE DATA THAT COULD TELL US THAT THEY ALSO 474 00:34:39,310 --> 00:34:42,310 COULD BE RSLs THAT WE MIGHT BE ABLE TO VISIT. 475 00:34:42,310 --> 00:34:44,849 SO THERE'S REALLY EXCITING THINGS JUST COMING UP EVEN WITH 476 00:34:44,849 --> 00:34:46,040 OUR CURRENT ASSETS. 477 00:34:46,040 --> 00:34:48,619 >> ONE MORE QUESTION AND THEN WE GO TO THE PHONE LINES. 478 00:34:48,619 --> 00:34:53,000 >> DAVID CURLY FROM ABC NEWS. 479 00:34:53,000 --> 00:34:56,340 THIS REALLY IS A BREAK THROUGH FOR HUMAN TRAVEL TO MARS. 480 00:34:56,340 --> 00:34:59,890 YOU CAN NOW PURIFY THE WATER, CREATE OXYGEN. 481 00:34:59,890 --> 00:35:01,990 THIS MAKES IT MUCH EASIER, DOESN'T IT? 482 00:35:01,990 --> 00:35:04,990 >> I THINK ALL OF THE SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES WE'RE MAKING ON THE 483 00:35:04,990 --> 00:35:17,050 SURFACE OF MARS, ARE GIVING US A VIEW THAT MARS HAS RESOURCES. 484 00:35:17,050 --> 00:35:21,490 WHAT'S WATER? 485 00:35:21,490 --> 00:35:22,940 HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. 486 00:35:22,940 --> 00:35:27,190 THAT'S WHAT WE MAKE ROCKET FUEL OUT OF. 487 00:35:27,190 --> 00:35:39,150 THE SPACE SHUTTLE ARE ALUMINUM CHLORATE AND THE WATER REALLY IS 488 00:35:39,150 --> 00:35:42,810 CRUCIAL BECAUSE WE NEED WATER TO DRINK, OXYGEN TO BREATHE. 489 00:35:42,810 --> 00:35:47,490 WE HAVE CARBON DIOXIDE SO THERE'S PLENTY OF RESOURCES ON 490 00:35:47,490 --> 00:35:48,490 MARS. 491 00:35:48,490 --> 00:35:52,440 EVEN NITROGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE WHICH WE DON'T THINK ABOUT. 492 00:35:52,440 --> 00:35:54,349 BUT IT'S CRUCIAL FOR EARTH. 493 00:35:54,349 --> 00:35:58,690 BOTH IF LIFE EXISTS ON MARS BUT ALSO ONCE WE GET THERE, WE'RE 494 00:35:58,690 --> 00:36:00,819 GOING TO NEED NITROGEN FOR A VARIETY OF PURPOSES. 495 00:36:00,819 --> 00:36:04,580 SO I THINK THAT MARS IS LOOKING MORE AND MORE THAT IT'S A 496 00:36:04,580 --> 00:36:08,410 POTENTIAL HABITAT FOR LIFE ON MARS THAT COULD BE, AS YOU 497 00:36:08,410 --> 00:36:13,470 HEARD, YOU KNOW, FROM TRANSFER FROM EARTH ONE WAY OR THE OTHER, 498 00:36:13,470 --> 00:36:14,850 SOME PEOPLE SAY WE'RE MARTIANS. 499 00:36:14,850 --> 00:36:16,680 COULD GO EITHER WAY. 500 00:36:16,680 --> 00:36:19,253 BUT THE EXCITING THING IS I THINK WE WILL SEND HULS IN THE 501 00:36:19,253 --> 00:36:25,359 †-- HUMANS IN THE NEAR FUTURE TO MARS AND ALSO TO BE ABLE TO LIVE 502 00:36:25,359 --> 00:36:26,359 ON THE SURFACE. 503 00:36:26,359 --> 00:36:29,170 THE RESOURCES ARE THERE. 504 00:36:29,170 --> 00:36:32,430 >> IT'S IMPORTANT TO REALIZE THAT NASA'S APPROACH TO 505 00:36:32,430 --> 00:36:35,430 EXPLORATION IS NOT STAR TREK. 506 00:36:35,430 --> 00:36:38,750 IT'S NOT GO WHERE NO MAN HAS GONE BEFORE AS THEY SAY. 507 00:36:38,750 --> 00:36:42,550 IT'S A METHODICAL APPROACH FOR WHICH WE LEARN EVERYTHING ABOUT 508 00:36:42,550 --> 00:36:45,431 THE ENVIRONMENT THAT WE'RE GOING TO SUBJECT HUMANS TO THAT WE 509 00:36:45,431 --> 00:36:49,210 POSSIBLY CAN AND THAT'S WHY OUR RIGOROUS SCIENTIFIC PROGRAM IS 510 00:36:49,210 --> 00:36:53,380 REALLY THE PIONEERS THAT ARE MAKING STEADY DISCOVERIES AND 511 00:36:53,380 --> 00:36:57,180 IAN GATTIS PATE CONTINUING TO DO THAT FOR MANY, MANY YEARS BEFORE 512 00:36:57,180 --> 00:37:02,930 HUMANS EVEN GET INTO THE VOIR DIRE†-- VACINITY OF MARS. 513 00:37:02,930 --> 00:37:09,470 THAT DOES HELP US UNDERSTAND THE PARAMETERS AND LEVERAGE AND 514 00:37:09,470 --> 00:37:14,450 UTILIZE THOSE THAT ARE AVAILABLE AND MAKE THOSE TRIPS MORE 515 00:37:14,450 --> 00:37:15,960 FEASIBLE THAN EVER BEFORE. 516 00:37:15,960 --> 00:37:17,190 >> I'LL BE VERY SPECIFIC. 517 00:37:17,190 --> 00:37:22,740 ON OUR MARS 2020 LANDER WE HAVE AN EXPERIMENT THAT'S NOT A 518 00:37:22,740 --> 00:37:24,860 CLASSICAL SCIENCE EXPERIMENT. 519 00:37:24,860 --> 00:37:28,960 IN FACT, IT'S A RESOURCE UTILIZATION EXPERIMENT. 520 00:37:28,960 --> 00:37:30,020 YOU MAY HEAR THAT. 521 00:37:30,020 --> 00:37:35,359 WE LOVE OUR ACRONYMS BUT IT'S A SMALL APPARATUS THAT'S GOING TO 522 00:37:35,359 --> 00:37:37,760 TAKE IN MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE. 523 00:37:37,760 --> 00:37:41,680 MOSTLY CARBON DIOXIDE AND EXTRACT THE OXYGEN. 524 00:37:41,680 --> 00:37:43,520 THAT'S WHAT IS FUNCTIONAL. 525 00:37:43,520 --> 00:37:45,570 WE CAN DO THAT ON EARTH BUT WE'RE GOING TO DEMONSTRATE IT ON 526 00:37:45,570 --> 00:37:46,570 MARS. 527 00:37:46,570 --> 00:37:51,400 THAT'S PART OF OUR COMBINATION OF HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT, SPACE 528 00:37:51,400 --> 00:37:54,380 TECHNOLOGY, AND SCIENCE ALL IN ONE. 529 00:37:54,380 --> 00:37:59,210 >> IN ADDITION TO THAT ON 2020 IS A†-- UNDERNEATH THE ROVER IS 530 00:37:59,210 --> 00:38:00,210 A RADAR. 531 00:38:00,210 --> 00:38:01,210 ACTUALLY IT'S FROM NORWAY. 532 00:38:01,210 --> 00:38:05,500 THEY'RE BUILDING THAT NORWEGIAN SPACE AGENCY AND THIS IS A RADAR 533 00:38:05,500 --> 00:38:10,010 THAT WILL SEND RADIO WAVES THROUGH THE GROUND, RETURN 534 00:38:10,010 --> 00:38:13,640 REFLECTIONS WILL TELL US WHAT THAT IS LIKE AND, YOU KNOW, 535 00:38:13,640 --> 00:38:18,380 MIGHT BE ABLE TO UNCOVER THOSE CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. 536 00:38:18,380 --> 00:38:21,369 IT COULD TELL US HOW IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTS LIKE THAT ARE FOR 537 00:38:21,369 --> 00:38:24,460 HUMANS TO BE ABLE TO TAKE AND GO TO MARS. 538 00:38:24,460 --> 00:38:29,940 AND WE'RE GOING TO OPERATE THAT ALL TIMES DURING THE DAY. 539 00:38:29,940 --> 00:38:33,130 THERE'S HUGE TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE SWINGS ON MARS SO WHAT 540 00:38:33,130 --> 00:38:34,130 IS IT LIKE? 541 00:38:34,130 --> 00:38:36,440 WHAT'S THE EFFICIENCY OF EXTRACTING THE OXYGEN UNDER 542 00:38:36,440 --> 00:38:37,700 VARIOUS EXTREMES. 543 00:38:37,700 --> 00:38:40,730 NOT ONLY DURING THE DAY BUT ALL THROUGHOUT A SEASON. 544 00:38:40,730 --> 00:38:43,630 SO THESE ARE HUGE STEPS FOR US TO BE ABLE TO PLAN THE RIGHT 545 00:38:43,630 --> 00:38:46,960 RESOURCES TO SUPPORT HUMANS IN THE FUTURE. 546 00:38:46,960 --> 00:38:53,790 >> LET'S GO TO THE PHONE LINES NOW AND WE'RE GOING TO START OUT 547 00:38:53,790 --> 00:38:57,829 WITH NEW YORK TIMES. 548 00:38:57,829 --> 00:39:03,770 >> YOU ARE ALL SAYING HOW EXCITING THIS IS AND I WAS 549 00:39:03,770 --> 00:39:08,240 WONDERING WHEN YOU MIGHT GET THERE AND NONE OF THE CURRENT 550 00:39:08,240 --> 00:39:10,480 SPACECRAFT ARE BEING PLANNED. 551 00:39:10,480 --> 00:39:11,480 DR. 552 00:39:11,480 --> 00:39:17,820 GREEN SAID CURIOSITY MIGHT GO THROUGH THE DARK STREAKS. 553 00:39:17,820 --> 00:39:21,280 UNDER WHAT PARAMETERS COULD THAT HAPPEN? 554 00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:26,951 >> YOU BROUGHT UP A REALLY IMPORTANT POINT AND THE QUESTION 555 00:39:26,951 --> 00:39:30,210 OF IS THERE LIFE ON MARS, WE KNOW THERE'S LIFE ON MARS 556 00:39:30,210 --> 00:39:32,280 ALREADY BECAUSE WE SENT IT THERE. 557 00:39:32,280 --> 00:39:35,520 WE TRY AND CLEAN OUR SPACECRAFT AS BEST AS WE CAN AND THE 558 00:39:35,520 --> 00:39:38,510 VIKINGS CERTAINLY WERE STERILIZED THE BEST OF ANY OF 559 00:39:38,510 --> 00:39:42,380 OUR SPACECRAFT BECAUSE WE JUST DIDN'T KNOW BUT THE SURFACE OF 560 00:39:42,380 --> 00:39:49,750 MARS IS REALLY A HARSH PLACE. 561 00:39:49,750 --> 00:39:55,760 IF YOU WANT TO KILL MICROBES ON EARTH YOU TAKE UV LIGHT AND KILL 562 00:39:55,760 --> 00:39:58,200 THE MICROBES. 563 00:39:58,200 --> 00:40:02,400 WE KNOW THAT BACTERIA ARE SO TENACIOUS THAT IT'S IMPOSSIBLE 564 00:40:02,400 --> 00:40:03,770 TO KILL THEM ALL. 565 00:40:03,770 --> 00:40:08,310 SO WE DO THE BEST JOB WE CAN AND WE SEND OUR SPACECRAFT INTO 566 00:40:08,310 --> 00:40:18,850 AREAS THAT WE THINK ARE SENSITIVE AND HOW CAN WE TAKE A 567 00:40:18,850 --> 00:40:21,280 SPACECRAFT LIKE CURIOSITY THAT MAY NOT HAVE BEEN CLEANED AS 568 00:40:21,280 --> 00:40:25,550 WELL AS VIKING TO AN AREA THAT MIGHT HAVE THAT LIFE. 569 00:40:25,550 --> 00:40:28,110 BUT THIS IS THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS. 570 00:40:28,110 --> 00:40:32,510 THIS IS WHY WE'RE CRAWLING BEFORE WE WALK. 571 00:40:32,510 --> 00:40:36,210 THAT WE'RE BEING VERY CAREFUL THAT WE DON'T SEND A SPACECRAFT 572 00:40:36,210 --> 00:40:39,630 TO MARS WITH THE INTENTION OF DETECTING MARTIAN LIFE AND FIND 573 00:40:39,630 --> 00:40:45,160 OUT THAT WE JUST FIND THE EARTH LIFE THAT WE TOOK WITH US. 574 00:40:45,160 --> 00:40:49,530 THAT'S TOUGH TO DO WHEN YOU GO DOWN AND LIST HOW DO YOU AVOID 575 00:40:49,530 --> 00:40:50,530 DOING THAT? 576 00:40:50,530 --> 00:40:51,530 IT'S VERY HARD. 577 00:40:51,530 --> 00:40:54,581 AND THIS IS THE GENERAL FIELD THAT YOU MAY HEARD US TALK 578 00:40:54,581 --> 00:40:56,260 ABOUT, PLANETARY PROTECTION. 579 00:40:56,260 --> 00:41:00,420 IT'S NOT ONLY PROTECTING THE EARTH FROM BRINGING SOME ALIEN 580 00:41:00,420 --> 00:41:07,380 LIFEFORM†TO EARTH BUT IT'S PROTECTING WHERE WE GO TO MAKE 581 00:41:07,380 --> 00:41:10,990 SURE THAT WE DON'T CONTAMINATE OTHER PLANETS BEFORE WE FIND OUT 582 00:41:10,990 --> 00:41:13,349 IF WE'RE ALONE IN THE UNIVERSE. 583 00:41:13,349 --> 00:41:16,960 >> WE DON'T KNOW IF CURIOSITY WILL HAVE AN OPPORTUNITY TO GO 584 00:41:16,960 --> 00:41:22,730 TO ONE OF THESE AREAS AND FIND†-- MAKE MEASUREMENTS. 585 00:41:22,730 --> 00:41:26,329 WE HAVE LINEAR STREAKS ON MT. 586 00:41:26,329 --> 00:41:28,160 SHARP THAT WE DON'T KNOW ENOUGH ABOUT. 587 00:41:28,160 --> 00:41:35,059 THEY MAY OR MAY NOT BE RSLs AND THEN WE HAVE TO MAKE DECISIONS 588 00:41:35,059 --> 00:41:38,619 ON IS CURIOSITY GOOD ENOUGH TO BE ABLE TO GO OVER TO THAT AREA 589 00:41:38,619 --> 00:41:43,730 AND MAKE APPROPRIATE MEASURES AS JOHN SAID WITHOUT IT MEASURING 590 00:41:47,829 --> 00:41:44,730 US. 591 00:41:47,829 --> 00:41:53,510 BUT EVEN THEN IT HAS A LIMITED CAPABILITY TO MAKE ANY SORT OF 592 00:41:53,510 --> 00:41:58,010 DETECTION IN THIS AREA. 593 00:41:58,010 --> 00:42:02,810 >> NEXT UP, TIM, US NEWS AND WORLD REPORT. 594 00:42:02,810 --> 00:42:04,610 >> YES, THANK YOU. 595 00:42:04,610 --> 00:42:05,810 CONGRATULATIONS EVERYONE. 596 00:42:05,810 --> 00:42:06,820 GREAT RESEARCH ON MARS. 597 00:42:06,820 --> 00:42:10,770 VERY EXCITING TO HEAR THAT THE SURFACE OF MARS CAN AT SOME 598 00:42:10,770 --> 00:42:12,130 POINT SUPPORT WATER. 599 00:42:12,130 --> 00:42:15,450 IT SOUNDS A BIT LIKE GAME OF THRONES WHERE THERE'S EXTREME 600 00:42:15,450 --> 00:42:19,650 SEASONS WHERE IT'S REALLY COLD AND REALLY WARM. 601 00:42:19,650 --> 00:42:24,440 DO YOU THINK THAT HUMANS COULD GROW CROPS ON MARS? 602 00:42:24,440 --> 00:42:29,099 THAT THE SOIL WOULD BE ALIVE ENOUGH TO SUPPORT SO KIND OF 603 00:42:29,099 --> 00:42:30,099 EARTH CROPS? 604 00:42:30,099 --> 00:42:33,859 >> WELL, I THINK THE REAL CHALLENGE AND IF YOU THINK ABOUT 605 00:42:33,859 --> 00:42:38,050 THE PROGRESSION OF ALTITUDE ON EARTH, WHEN YOU'RE CLIMBING 606 00:42:38,050 --> 00:42:44,880 MOUNT EVEREST, YOU HAVE WONDERFUL PLANT LIFE BUT AS YOU 607 00:42:44,880 --> 00:42:50,050 GO HIGHER THAT PLAN LIFE DISAPPEARS UNTIL YOU SEE ONLY 608 00:42:50,050 --> 00:42:55,310 THIS UNIQUE FUNGUS AND ALGAE AND HIGHER ALL THE PLANT LIFE 609 00:42:55,310 --> 00:42:56,310 DISAPPEARS. 610 00:42:56,310 --> 00:43:00,670 THAT'S BECAUSE THE ATMOSPHERE GETS SO THIN THAT ANY LIFE WOULD 611 00:43:00,670 --> 00:43:01,670 BE DESICCATED. 612 00:43:01,670 --> 00:43:02,810 WOULD LOSE IT'S MOISTURE. 613 00:43:02,810 --> 00:43:07,520 WELL, MARS IS ABOUT THE ALTITUDE OF AN EVEREST THAT'S THREE TIMES 614 00:43:07,520 --> 00:43:08,520 HIGHER. 615 00:43:08,520 --> 00:43:10,040 HIGHER THAN ANY AIRPLANES CAN FLY. 616 00:43:10,040 --> 00:43:12,980 SO YOU'D HAVE A CHALLENGE GROWING PLANTS ON THE SURFACE OF 617 00:43:12,980 --> 00:43:17,859 MARS EVEN WITH SOME EXTREME GENETIC ENGINEERING BUT 618 00:43:17,859 --> 00:43:21,829 CERTAINLY YOU COULD BUILD INFLATABLE OR SMALL GREEN HOUSES 619 00:43:21,829 --> 00:43:26,109 WITH HIGHER PRESSURE AND IF THERE'S A LOT OF WATER YOU COULD 620 00:43:26,109 --> 00:43:28,770 USE THAT WATER TO GROW PLANTS INSIDE OF THE GREEN HOUSE. 621 00:43:28,770 --> 00:43:31,200 BECAUSE AFTER ALL THERE'S PLENTY OF CARBON DIOXIDE. 622 00:43:31,200 --> 00:43:36,200 SO THAT MIGHT BE ANOTHER MECHANISM THAT WE HAVE FUTURE 623 00:43:36,200 --> 00:43:41,099 EXPLORERS WITH THE PLANTS THEY EAT AS PART OF THE SYSTEM. 624 00:43:41,099 --> 00:43:46,350 >> AND NOW WE KNOW THERE'S A SIGNIFICANT AMOUNT OF WATER IN 625 00:43:46,350 --> 00:43:50,859 THE HUMIDITY AND WATER RESOURCES TO BE ABLE TO BRING TO BEAR. 626 00:43:50,859 --> 00:43:54,049 >> NEXT UP, REUTERS, IRENE. 627 00:43:54,049 --> 00:43:57,690 >> THANKS VERY MUCH DWYANE. 628 00:43:57,690 --> 00:44:01,450 I ALSO HAD A QUESTION ABOUT PLANETARY PROTECTION ISSUES. 629 00:44:01,450 --> 00:44:11,130 I UNDERSTAND MARS 2020 DOESN'T HAVE THE BUDGET TO GO TO AN AREA 630 00:44:11,130 --> 00:44:15,410 OF SPECIAL INTEREST AND WONDERING IN LIGHT OF THIS 631 00:44:15,410 --> 00:44:21,170 DISCOVERY MIGHT THAT BE REVISITS AND COULD THE LANDING TEAM 632 00:44:21,170 --> 00:44:33,480 CONSIDER SIGHTS CLOSE TO RSL LOCATIONS? 633 00:44:33,480 --> 00:44:39,670 >> WELL, THE CURRENT SIGHTS BEING CONSIDERED FOR MARS 2020 634 00:44:39,670 --> 00:44:43,380 ARE BEING CLASSIFIED RELATIVE TO PLANETARY PROTECTION AND OUR 635 00:44:43,380 --> 00:44:48,920 PLANS, INDEED, ARE TO MAKE SURE THAT MARS 2020 DOES, INDEED, 636 00:44:48,920 --> 00:44:52,790 RECOGNIZE WHAT CLASSIFICATION AND THEN STERILIZE APPROPRIATELY 637 00:44:52,790 --> 00:45:00,930 AND RETURNING SAMPLES IS ONE OF THE HIGHEST LEVELS NO MATTER 638 00:45:00,930 --> 00:45:01,960 WHAT. 639 00:45:01,960 --> 00:45:09,599 SO WE HAVE PLANS TO BE ABLE TO STERILIZE MARS 2020 AND WE HAVE 640 00:45:09,599 --> 00:45:12,839 THE BUDGET IN THE PLAN TO BE ABLE TO DO THAT SO IT'S 641 00:45:12,839 --> 00:45:17,140 INCORRECT TO SAY WE WON'T CONSIDER PLAN TOIR EXPLORATION. 642 00:45:17,140 --> 00:45:22,799 WE HAVE AND WE HAVE TO PLAN HOW TO HANDLE THAT. 643 00:45:22,799 --> 00:45:44,960 >> THE OTHER PART OF THE QUESTION IS THESE RSLs ARE IN 644 00:45:44,960 --> 00:45:49,130 CHALLENGING LOCATIONS IT WOULD BE TRIVIAL TO GO UP AND 645 00:45:49,130 --> 00:45:51,550 INVESTIGATE BUT IT'S VERY HARD FOR A ROVER. 646 00:45:51,550 --> 00:45:53,109 SO WE'RE A LITTLE WAYS OFF. 647 00:45:53,109 --> 00:45:56,920 I THINK THAT THE INVESTIGATION OF THESE WITH PROPER PLANETARY 648 00:45:56,920 --> 00:46:01,609 PROTECTION LAYS IN THE DOMAIN OF FUTURE ROBOTIC SPACECRAFTS THAT 649 00:46:01,609 --> 00:46:04,680 ARE DESIGNED SPECIFICALLY TO GO THERE AND THEY'RE DESIGNED IN A 650 00:46:04,680 --> 00:46:08,040 WAY THAT THEY CAN BE STERILIZED AND THE EXCITING THING ABOUT 651 00:46:08,040 --> 00:46:10,641 THIS ANNOUNCEMENT IS THE CONFIRMATION OF WHAT WE 652 00:46:10,641 --> 00:46:22,369 SUSPECTED THAT THIS IS DUE TO SOME KIND OF WATER FUTURE 653 00:46:22,369 --> 00:46:23,500 AND HOPEFULLY THAT WE COULD GO IN 654 00:46:23,500 --> 00:46:29,089 AND INVESTIGATE THESE AREAS AND PERHAPS EVEN RETURN SAMPLES FROM 655 00:46:29,089 --> 00:46:30,530 THESE AREAS SOME DAY. 656 00:46:30,530 --> 00:46:34,069 >> IRENE, WE'RE GOING TO GET YOUR PLANETARY PROTECTION 657 00:46:34,069 --> 00:46:35,530 QUESTION AT ANOTHER TIME. 658 00:46:35,530 --> 00:46:37,480 WE'LL HAVE TO DO A LOT OF FOLLOW UPS. 659 00:46:37,480 --> 00:46:41,309 I BELIEVE THAT FOLKS IN FRANCE WANT TO RESPOND TO THE QUESTION 660 00:46:41,309 --> 00:46:43,090 AND PLEASE IDENTIFY YOURSELF. 661 00:46:43,090 --> 00:46:49,349 >> I WAS GOING TO SAY EXACTLY WHAT HE SAID. 662 00:46:49,349 --> 00:46:53,170 THAT'S THE RSL THAT WE KNOW ABOUT. 663 00:46:53,170 --> 00:46:58,819 THERE MAY BE WATER FROM FLAT AREAS THAT WE DON'T KNOW ABOUT. 664 00:46:58,819 --> 00:47:03,990 THE PROBLEM IS WE OBSERVE AT 3:00†P.M. 665 00:47:03,990 --> 00:47:06,609 THE DRIEST TIME OF THE DAY. 666 00:47:06,609 --> 00:47:12,300 SO MAYBE WE COULD FIND THIS IN OTHER LOCATIONS THAT ARE 667 00:47:12,300 --> 00:47:13,300 ACCESSIBLE. 668 00:47:13,300 --> 00:47:17,640 BUT RIGHT NOW THESE ARE ONLY KNOWN TO EXIST ON STEEP ROCKY 669 00:47:17,640 --> 00:47:18,640 SLOPES. 670 00:47:18,640 --> 00:47:21,090 PLACES WE COULDN'T LAND DIRECTLY. 671 00:47:21,090 --> 00:47:27,960 WE COULD LAND CLOSE TO THEM AND OBSERVE THEM FROM A DISTANCE AND 672 00:47:27,960 --> 00:47:30,730 THAT WOULD BE VALUABLE, ESPECIALLY TO WATCH THESE THINGS 673 00:47:30,730 --> 00:47:34,299 THROUGHOUT THE DAY WHICH WE CAN'T DO FROM ORBIT. 674 00:47:34,299 --> 00:47:41,549 >> I WOULD ALSO SAY IF I WAS A MICROBE ON MARS I WOULD NOT LIVE 675 00:47:41,549 --> 00:47:44,079 NEAR ONE OF THE RSLs. 676 00:47:44,079 --> 00:47:48,339 I WOULD WANT TO LIVE FURTHER NORTH OR SOUTH, HIGHER LATITUDES 677 00:47:48,339 --> 00:47:51,210 UNDER THE SURFACE, QUITE FAR UNDER THE SURFACE AND WHERE 678 00:47:51,210 --> 00:47:55,540 THERE'S MORE OF A FRESH WATER GLACIER. 679 00:47:55,540 --> 00:47:58,819 WE HAVE SOME SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE THAT THEY DO. 680 00:47:58,819 --> 00:48:04,329 WHEN WE CAN FIND SUB SURFACE ICE THAT'S A FEW METERS OR DEEPER 681 00:48:04,329 --> 00:48:07,190 BELOW THE SURFACE AND THAT'S FRESH WATER. 682 00:48:07,190 --> 00:48:14,480 THAT'S GOING TO BE A VERY EXCITING AREA OF EXPLORATION IN 683 00:48:14,480 --> 00:48:15,480 THE FUTURE. 684 00:48:15,480 --> 00:48:16,640 >> ALL RIGHT. 685 00:48:16,640 --> 00:48:21,680 WE ARE RUNNING SHORT ON TIME BUT WE'LL TAKE ONE MORE CALL FROM 686 00:48:21,680 --> 00:48:25,039 THE PHONES, SOCIAL MEDIA AND THEN COME BACK HERE. 687 00:48:25,039 --> 00:48:26,930 >> CAN YOU HEAR ME? 688 00:48:26,930 --> 00:48:27,930 >> YES. 689 00:48:27,930 --> 00:48:29,289 >> CAN YOU HEAR ME? 690 00:48:29,289 --> 00:48:30,289 >> YES, AGAIN. 691 00:48:30,289 --> 00:48:33,299 >> YOU WANT TO LOOK FOR LIFE ON MARS BUT YOU DON'T KNOW WHAT 692 00:48:33,299 --> 00:48:35,770 MARS LIFE LOOKS LIKE AND SIBS YOU DON'T KNOW WHAT IT LOOKS 693 00:48:35,770 --> 00:48:37,520 LIKE YOU DON'T KNOW HOW TO LOOK FOR IT. 694 00:48:37,520 --> 00:48:41,640 THAT SAID, THIS DISCOVERY IS A SERIES OF PAPERS THAT HAVE COME 695 00:48:41,640 --> 00:48:47,240 TO THE CONCLUSION ABOUT THE WATER AND A ARE THERE ANALOGS ON 696 00:48:47,240 --> 00:48:51,010 EARTH THAT YOU ARE SPECIFICALLY LOOKING AT THAT MIRROR ASPECTS 697 00:48:51,010 --> 00:48:54,420 OF WHAT YOU FOUND ON MARS AND B AS YOU PREPARE TO SEND PEOPLE 698 00:48:54,420 --> 00:48:57,680 THERE AND MAYBE MORE ROBOTS HAVE YOU EVER GIVEN THOUGHT TO 699 00:48:57,680 --> 00:49:01,180 BUILDING A LARGE REFRIGERATOR AND TRYING TO SIMULATE THE 700 00:49:01,180 --> 00:49:04,640 GEOLOGY BY DUMPING STUFF IN THERE AND SEEING HOW IT REACTS 701 00:49:04,640 --> 00:49:08,950 AND THEN INOCULATING IT WITH KNOWN LIFE FORMS? 702 00:49:08,950 --> 00:49:13,230 >> SO NUMBER ONE WE ARE ACTUALLY LOOKING FOR LIFE ON MARS. 703 00:49:13,230 --> 00:49:17,920 WE'RE TAKING A VERY MEASURED APPROACH TO IT BECAUSE IN MANY 704 00:49:17,920 --> 00:49:21,000 WAYS WE DON'T KNOW WHAT EXACTLY TO LOOK FOR SO WE'RE LOOKING FOR 705 00:49:21,000 --> 00:49:25,180 THINGS THAT FRAME IT AND GIVE US A CONTEXT TO MAKE US UNDERSTAND 706 00:49:25,180 --> 00:49:28,980 WHETHER OR NOT LIFE WAS EVEN POSSIBLE AND THEN WHAT MAY BE 707 00:49:28,980 --> 00:49:31,440 SORT OF A BIO CHEMICAL DISCONTINUTIY. 708 00:49:31,440 --> 00:49:41,160 SO IT'S THE FACT THAT WE'RE GOING TO CASH SAMPLES IN 2020. 709 00:49:41,160 --> 00:49:44,809 THIS HAS BEEN A LONG STANDING SCIENTIFIC PENDING FROM THE 710 00:49:44,809 --> 00:49:49,520 NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL AND THE ONLY WAY TO TELL WHETHER 711 00:49:49,520 --> 00:49:53,430 THERE'S LIFE ON MARS IS TO BE ABLE TO BRING A SAMPLE BACK TO 712 00:49:53,430 --> 00:49:58,329 LOOK AT IT THOROUGHLY TO UNDERSTAND WHAT IS THERE AND 713 00:49:58,329 --> 00:50:01,079 WHAT THE POSSIBILITIES ARE. 714 00:50:01,079 --> 00:50:07,410 YES THERE ARE SOME EARTH ANALOGS AND THEY SEE STREAKS FORMING 715 00:50:07,410 --> 00:50:12,180 THAT LOOK SIMILAR IN PLACES LIKE ANTARTICA. 716 00:50:12,180 --> 00:50:18,170 THE DIFFICULTY IS THAT SOMETHING THAT LOOKS THE SAME IS THE SAME 717 00:50:18,170 --> 00:50:21,089 AND WE DON'T KNOW IF IT'S THE SAME MECHANISM SO WE HAVE 718 00:50:21,089 --> 00:50:26,380 SOMETHING THAT LOOKS SIMILAR AND THAT'S BEING STUDIED. 719 00:50:26,380 --> 00:50:29,350 THE IDEA OF THROWING STUFF IN THE FREEZER AND SEEING IT IF 720 00:50:29,350 --> 00:50:35,609 GROWS, THE FOOD INDUSTRY DOES THAT ALL THE TIME AND THAT HELPS 721 00:50:35,609 --> 00:50:38,050 SET THE TEMPERATURE OF YOUR FREEZER. 722 00:50:38,050 --> 00:50:44,060 IT'S MINUS 20 AND YOU DON'T GET THINGS GROWING IN THEM. 723 00:50:44,060 --> 00:50:48,710 >> THE OTHER THING IS THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS AND HOW WE 724 00:50:48,710 --> 00:50:51,839 DECIDE WHAT MISSIONS TO SEND THAT ARE OUR LARGE STRATEGIC 725 00:50:51,839 --> 00:51:00,470 MISSIONS IS BASED ON A RATHER LARGE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY 726 00:51:00,470 --> 00:51:02,950 HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. 727 00:51:02,950 --> 00:51:07,390 THAT'S THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS AND IN JUST ABOUT FIVE YEARS 728 00:51:07,390 --> 00:51:12,319 WE'LL START UP THE NEXT MAJOR REVIEW OF PLANETARY SCIENCE AND 729 00:51:12,319 --> 00:51:20,559 I CAN ANTICIPATE THAT THE INSTRUMENT THAT SHOWS ORGANIC 730 00:51:20,559 --> 00:51:26,359 MATERIALS AND WE STILL DON'T KNOW WHAT IT'S FROM, FROM THESE 731 00:51:26,359 --> 00:51:30,840 RESULTS AND ALL THE REST I CAN'T IMAGINE IT WON'T BE A HIGH 732 00:51:30,840 --> 00:51:34,230 PRIORITY WITH THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY TO SEND SOMETHING THAT 733 00:51:34,230 --> 00:51:37,270 HAS THE RIGHT PLANETARY PROTECTION TO GO TO THESE AREAS 734 00:51:37,270 --> 00:51:41,700 AND MAY HAVE A LIFE DETECTION CAPABILITY TO SEE IF THERE'S 735 00:51:41,700 --> 00:51:44,619 LIFE THERE THAT IS SIMILAR TO EARTH AND THAT IS ALWAYS RISKY 736 00:51:44,619 --> 00:51:46,160 BECAUSE WHAT IF YOU DON'T SEE IT? 737 00:51:46,160 --> 00:51:47,160 THAT DOESN'T RULE OUT LIFE. 738 00:51:47,160 --> 00:51:50,710 IT JUST MEANS IT'S NOT JUST LIKE US AND FROM AN EVOLUTION 739 00:51:50,710 --> 00:51:52,510 STANDPOINT YOU WOULDN'T EXPECT THAT. 740 00:51:52,510 --> 00:51:55,089 >> SO LET ME CLOSE THIS OUT. 741 00:51:55,089 --> 00:51:56,089 >> NOT YET. 742 00:51:56,089 --> 00:51:59,910 >> WE HAVE A FEW MORE MINUTES BUT THEN WE'LL LET YOU CLOSE IT 743 00:51:59,910 --> 00:52:00,910 OUT. 744 00:52:00,910 --> 00:52:01,910 >> LET'S GO TO SOCIAL MEDIA. 745 00:52:01,910 --> 00:52:04,230 I KNOW WE HAVE A LOT OF QUESTIONS BUT LET'S TAKE TWO 746 00:52:04,230 --> 00:52:07,690 QUICK ONES AND THEN I'M GOING TO GIVE ASSOCIATED PRESS ON THE 747 00:52:07,690 --> 00:52:14,329 PHONE ONE QUESTION AND THEN I'LL TURN IT OVER TO THE BOSS. 748 00:52:14,329 --> 00:52:17,839 >> FIRST QUESTION IS FROM MELISSA ON TWITTER AND SHE SAID 749 00:52:17,839 --> 00:52:19,089 SO YOU FOUND WATER? 750 00:52:19,089 --> 00:52:20,140 WHAT ARE THE NEXT STEPS? 751 00:52:20,140 --> 00:52:24,000 WHAT DO YOU PLAN TO DO WITH THIS INFORMATION? 752 00:52:24,000 --> 00:52:25,170 >> DRINK IT. 753 00:52:25,170 --> 00:52:31,450 >> ONE OF THE BIG THINGS IS NOW WE FOUND WATER AND WE SEE IT 754 00:52:31,450 --> 00:52:34,329 PARTICIPATE IN FORMING THESE STREAKS BUT WE DON'T KNOW WHERE 755 00:52:34,329 --> 00:52:36,940 THE WATER ACTUALLY COMES FROM. 756 00:52:36,940 --> 00:52:41,160 SO IT COULD BE HIDING A MAJOR SOURCE OF WATER IN THE SUB 757 00:52:41,160 --> 00:52:43,780 SURFACE BUT WE DON'T HAVE ANY IDEA. 758 00:52:43,780 --> 00:52:47,819 SO THIS IS SORT OF THE NEXT PUZZLE TO THIS RECENT DISCOVERY. 759 00:52:47,819 --> 00:52:52,290 >> A CRITICAL PART OF THAT IS TO FIND OUT OTHER PLACES ON MARS 760 00:52:52,290 --> 00:52:53,400 THAT WE SEE THIS. 761 00:52:53,400 --> 00:52:58,390 WE ONLY IMAGED ABOUT 3 TO 4% TOTAL AT THIS HIGH RESOLUTION AT 762 00:52:58,390 --> 00:53:00,619 DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE YEAR. 763 00:53:00,619 --> 00:53:01,730 >> WE NEED THAT HIGH RESOLUTION. 764 00:53:01,730 --> 00:53:04,750 THESE STREAKS ARE MAYBE 4 OR 5 METERS IN WIDTH. 765 00:53:04,750 --> 00:53:11,089 THEY MAY BE A COUPLE OF FOOTBALL FIELDS LONG BUT YOU KNOW, A 766 00:53:11,089 --> 00:53:16,960 NORMAL IMAGEER THAT MEASURE HALF A KILOMETER BY HALF A KILOMETER, 767 00:53:16,960 --> 00:53:19,410 THEY'RE TOTALLY LOSS. 768 00:53:19,410 --> 00:53:24,250 WE NEED THAT ABILITY TO SEE THIS TABLE AND SEVERAL PIXELS FROM 769 00:53:24,250 --> 00:53:26,709 ORBIT AND WE HAVE THAT WITH HIGH-RISE RIGHT NOW. 770 00:53:26,709 --> 00:53:28,710 >> ONE MORE QUESTION. 771 00:53:28,710 --> 00:53:30,190 >> THIS IS FROM MEREDITH. 772 00:53:30,190 --> 00:53:32,550 SHE SAID DOES THIS MEAN THAT IT RAINS ON MARS? 773 00:53:32,550 --> 00:53:37,059 IS THERE A FULL WATER LIKEL LIKE ON EARTH? 774 00:53:37,059 --> 00:53:40,069 >> WE HAVEN'T SEEN RAIN ON MARS BECAUSE SURFACE LEVEL IS WAY TOO 775 00:53:40,069 --> 00:53:42,480 LOW BUT WE HAVE SEEN SNOW. 776 00:53:42,480 --> 00:53:46,920 SO WE KNOW FROM THE HUMIDITY T FACT THAT WHEN THE SUN GOES DOWN 777 00:53:46,920 --> 00:53:51,230 IT COOLS, THE HUMIDITY PRECIPITATES OUT AS ICE CRYSTALS 778 00:53:51,230 --> 00:53:55,230 ON THE SURFACE OF ROVERS AND ON ROCKS SO WE KNOW THAT THERE IS A 779 00:53:55,230 --> 00:53:59,540 WATER CYCLE AND WE KNOW FROM THE EVIDENCE OF CURIOSITY ROVING ON 780 00:53:59,540 --> 00:54:03,240 THE SURFACE THAT 4 BILLION YEARS AGO THERE WAS AN ACTIVE WATER 781 00:54:03,240 --> 00:54:07,390 CYCLE BECAUSE WE'RE DRIVING OVER RIVER DELTAS SO AT THAT TIME IT 782 00:54:07,390 --> 00:54:08,410 CERTAINLY DID RAIN. 783 00:54:08,410 --> 00:54:13,480 >> IN FACT, THE PHOENIX LANDER THAT LANDED CLOSE TO THE NORTH 784 00:54:13,480 --> 00:54:19,440 POLE UP IN THE ARCTIC ZONE REGION OF MARS ACTUALLY MADE 785 00:54:19,440 --> 00:54:23,640 SOME GREAT OBSERVATIONS WITH A CANADIAN INSTRUMENT FROM THE 786 00:54:23,640 --> 00:54:26,849 CANADIAN SPACE AGENCY WATCHING THE SNOW COME IN. 787 00:54:26,849 --> 00:54:31,730 THERE'S GREAT DATA FROM PHOENIX ALONE THAT SHOWS US THAT. 788 00:54:31,730 --> 00:54:36,680 >> BEFORE WE GO TO THE PHONE ONE LAST TIME, SOCIAL MEDIA, KEEP 789 00:54:36,680 --> 00:54:40,950 SENDING THOSE QUESTIONS IN AND WE'LL HAVE FOLKS RESPONDING AS 790 00:54:40,950 --> 00:54:45,810 QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE TO ALL OF YOUR QUESTIONS ON SOCIAL MEDIA. 791 00:54:45,810 --> 00:54:47,550 SO MARSHA, ASSOCIATED PRESS. 792 00:54:47,550 --> 00:54:50,200 >> YES, CAN YOU HEAR ME? 793 00:54:50,200 --> 00:54:51,790 >> LOUD AND CLEAR. 794 00:54:51,790 --> 00:54:54,940 >> YES, MY QUESTION ABOUT THE RSLs. 795 00:54:54,940 --> 00:55:00,030 WOULD YOU ANTICIPATE THE WATER BEING AS SALTY AS THE EARTH'S 796 00:55:00,030 --> 00:55:01,030 OCEANS? 797 00:55:01,030 --> 00:55:05,329 I'M JUST WONDERING AND CAN YOU EVEN ESTIMATE OR GUESS HOW MUCH 798 00:55:05,329 --> 00:55:07,580 WATER WE'RE TALKING ABOUT FLOWING? 799 00:55:07,580 --> 00:55:12,410 I DON'T KNOW IF I'M INVISIONING STREAMS, RIVERS, A TRICKLE, IS 800 00:55:12,410 --> 00:55:13,839 THERE A DROUGHT? 801 00:55:13,839 --> 00:55:18,190 GIVE ME A PICTURE OF WHAT YOU THINK, HOW MUCH WATER THERE 802 00:55:18,190 --> 00:55:25,309 MIGHT BE. 803 00:55:25,309 --> 00:55:26,460 >> DID YOU COPY THAT QUESTION? 804 00:55:26,460 --> 00:55:27,460 >> YEAH. 805 00:55:27,460 --> 00:55:30,450 HE'S GOING TO ANSWER THAT QUESTION. 806 00:55:30,450 --> 00:55:36,859 >> I'LL SAY WHAT I THINK AND HE CAN CLIMB IN AS WELL BUT EARTH'S 807 00:55:36,859 --> 00:55:40,099 OCEANS SEEM PRETTY SALTY TO US BUT WATER CAN GET MUCH, MUCH 808 00:55:40,099 --> 00:55:43,320 SALTIER THAN THAT AND IF THE PROCESS OCCURS IF THAT'S HOW THE 809 00:55:43,320 --> 00:55:47,450 WATER IS BEING MADE IT WILL BE MUCH, MUCH SALTIER THAN EARTH'S 810 00:55:47,450 --> 00:55:55,310 OCEANS WE MADE AN ATTEMPT TO ESTIMATE HOW MUCH WATER MIGHT BE 811 00:55:55,310 --> 00:55:59,289 THE MINIMUM AMOUNT TO EXPLAIN THE DARKENING ASSUMING ONLY 5% 812 00:55:59,289 --> 00:56:03,930 WATER WHICH IS SUFFICIENT AND ONLY 10 MILLIMETERS THICKNESS 813 00:56:03,930 --> 00:56:08,020 WHICH IS MUST HAVE FOR IT TO ACTUALLY FLOW DOWN THE SLOPES. 814 00:56:08,020 --> 00:56:16,760 >> THE MINIMUM WAS†-- I DON'T KNOW HOW MANY OLYMPIC SWIMMING 815 00:56:16,760 --> 00:56:22,869 POOLS THAT IS SO WHAT WE'RE DEALING WITH IS WET SOIL, THIN 816 00:56:22,869 --> 00:56:24,770 LAYERS OF WET SOIL. 817 00:56:24,770 --> 00:56:30,160 NOT STANDING WATER MARS HAS A LOT OF SURFACE AREA SO IF YOU 818 00:56:30,160 --> 00:56:35,160 ADD IT ALL UP IT COULD BE A SIGNIFICANT VOLUME. 819 00:56:35,160 --> 00:56:36,339 >> OKAY? 820 00:56:36,339 --> 00:56:38,700 ALL RIGHT. 821 00:56:38,700 --> 00:56:41,000 WHAT I'D LIKE TO DO NOW IS TURN IT OVER TO DR. 822 00:56:41,000 --> 00:56:45,089 JOHN GRUNSFELD AND THE MARS MISSION AND MARS 823 00:56:45,089 --> 00:56:49,829 PROGRAM IS IN HIS PORTFOLIO BUT HE HAS NEARLY 100 MISSIONS IN 824 00:56:49,829 --> 00:56:50,859 THE PORTFOLIO. 825 00:56:50,859 --> 00:56:52,650 SO SIR, WRAP UP. 826 00:56:52,650 --> 00:56:53,650 >> THANKS. 827 00:56:53,650 --> 00:56:55,010 WELL, AGAIN, THANK YOU FOR COMING. 828 00:56:55,010 --> 00:56:57,789 I KNOW THIS IS AN EXCITING AND INTERESTING RESULT. 829 00:56:57,789 --> 00:56:59,390 I KNOW YOU'LL HAVE LOTS MORE QUESTIONS. 830 00:56:59,390 --> 00:57:02,340 WE'LL TRY TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FROM SOCIAL MEDIA. 831 00:57:02,340 --> 00:57:06,710 WE ENCOURAGE YOU TO TALK TO OUR SCIENTISTS AFTER THIS WE ARE ON 832 00:57:06,710 --> 00:57:11,049 A JOURNEY TO MARS AND SCIENCE IS LEADING THE WAY AND EACH TIME WE 833 00:57:11,049 --> 00:57:14,549 LEARN ABOUT SOMETHING NEW IT BECOMES MORE AND MORE 834 00:57:14,549 --> 00:57:20,579 INTERESTING AND IT'S JUST GOING TO PROVIDE US WITH A GREAT SENSE 835 00:57:20,579 --> 00:57:25,220 OF OUR PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE AND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM IN PARTICULAR. 836 00:57:25,220 --> 00:57:27,750 AS HE SAYS WE HAVE A LOT OF OTHER MISSIONS WE JUST STARTED 837 00:57:27,750 --> 00:57:29,650 THIS YEAR. 838 00:57:29,650 --> 00:57:32,630 WE KNOW THEY HAVE AN UNDERSEA OCEAN AND WE'LL BE EXPLORING 839 00:57:32,630 --> 00:57:35,920 THAT IN THE NEXT DECADE SO PLEASE STAY TUNED TO SCIENCE 840 00:57:35,920 --> 00:57:38,940 BECAUSE, YOU KNOW, BASICALLY, SCIENCE NEVER SLEEPS. 841 00:57:38,940 --> 00:57:42,119 WE HAVE LOTS OF DISCOVERIES AND WE APPRECIATE YOUR INTEREST. 842 00:57:42,119 --> 00:57:48,539 THANK YOU VERY MUCH. 843 00:57:48,539 --> 00:57:56,300 [ APPLAUSE ] >> SO WITH THAT, THANK YOU FOR 844 00:57:56,300 --> 00:57:58,010 JOINING US FROM WASHINGTON D.C. 845 00:57:58,010 --> 00:58:00,760 AGAIN, GO TO NASA.GOV/MARS AND NASA.GOV/JOURNEY TO MARS. 846 00:58:00,760 --> 00:58:04,130 FOLLOW US ON SOCIAL MEDIA.